LATERAL EPICONDYLITIS (TENNIS ELBOW)
ECRB Origin Pathology | 80-90% Respond to Conservative | 6-12 Months Before Surgery
NIRSCHL CLASSIFICATION OF TENDINOSIS
Critical Must-Knows
- ECRB origin is the primary pathology - angiofibroblastic degeneration, not inflammation
- 80-90% respond to conservative management - physiotherapy, eccentric exercises, bracing
- Surgery only after 6-12 months of failed conservative treatment
- Open vs arthroscopic debridement - both effective, similar outcomes
- PRP evidence mixed - some benefit over cortisone but not superior to placebo
Examiner's Pearls
- "Lateral epicondylitis is tendinosis (degeneration), not tendinitis (inflammation)
- "Cozen's test and Mill's test are provocative tests for diagnosis
- "ECRB origin at lateral epicondyle is most commonly affected structure
- "Natural history is self-limiting - most resolve within 12-18 months
Clinical Imaging
Imaging Gallery
Critical Lateral Epicondylitis Exam Points
Pathophysiology Not Inflammation
Angiofibroblastic degeneration of the ECRB origin - this is tendinosis, not tendinitis. No significant inflammatory cells on histology. Failed healing response with disorganized collagen and neovascularization.
ECRB Origin Primary Site
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis origin at the lateral epicondyle is the primary pathology in 90% of cases. The underside of ECRB at its origin shows characteristic grey, friable angiofibroblastic tissue (Nirschl lesion).
Conservative Treatment First Line
80-90% respond to non-operative management including physiotherapy, eccentric exercises, counterforce bracing, and activity modification. Surgery is reserved for those who fail 6-12 months of conservative treatment.
PRP Evidence Mixed
PRP may be superior to cortisone but is NOT superior to placebo or dry needling in high-quality RCTs. Cortisone provides short-term relief but may have worse long-term outcomes. Evidence for PRP remains controversial.
Quick Decision Guide - Tennis Elbow Management
| Duration | Symptoms | Treatment | Key Pearl |
|---|---|---|---|
| Less than 6 weeks | Mild pain, provocable only | Rest, activity modification, ice | Avoid cortisone - may worsen long-term outcome |
| 6 weeks to 6 months | Moderate pain, functional limitation | Physiotherapy, eccentric exercises, brace | 80% will improve with structured rehabilitation |
| 6-12 months | Failed conservative, persistent symptoms | Consider PRP, GTN patches | Surgery only if truly failed all conservative options |
| Greater than 12 months | Failed all conservative, affecting work/life | Surgical debridement (open or arthroscopic) | 90% success with surgery after appropriate conservative trial |
ECRB - The Culprit Tendon
Memory Hook:ECRB is the Culprit - 90% of lateral epicondylitis involves this tendon
TENNIS - Conservative Management
Memory Hook:TENNIS elbow needs TIME - 80-90% improve without surgery
COZEN - Clinical Tests
Memory Hook:COZEN test is the classic provocative test - resisted wrist extension reproduces lateral epicondyle pain
SURGICAL - Operative Indications and Technique
Memory Hook:SURGICAL treatment only after failed conservative - debride ECRB, protect PIN
Overview and Epidemiology
Lateral epicondylitis, commonly known as "tennis elbow," is a degenerative condition of the common extensor origin at the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. Despite the name, only 5-10% of patients with this condition actually play tennis.
Key epidemiological features:
- Incidence: 1-3% of the general population annually
- Peak age: 35-50 years (working age population)
- Dominant arm: 75% of cases
- Occupation: Manual laborers, computer workers, racquet sports athletes
- Natural history: Self-limiting in most cases, resolves within 12-18 months
Misnomer: Not Tendinitis
The term "tendinitis" implies inflammation, but lateral epicondylitis is actually angiofibroblastic tendinosis - a failed healing response with degenerative changes rather than acute inflammation. Histology shows disorganized collagen, fibroblast proliferation, and neovascularization without significant inflammatory cells.
Risk factors:
- Repetitive wrist extension and supination activities
- Age 35-50 years (peak occupational demands)
- Manual labor (mechanics, carpenters, painters)
- Computer work with poor ergonomics
- Racquet sports (especially poor technique)
- Smoking (impairs tendon healing)
- Diabetes (tendinopathy association)
Impact:
- Affects work productivity (manual workers particularly affected)
- Causes significant pain with daily activities (lifting, gripping)
- Economic burden from lost work days and treatment costs
- Most resolve spontaneously but can become chronic in 10-20%
Pathophysiology and Mechanisms
Common extensor origin anatomy:
The lateral epicondyle serves as the attachment point for the common extensor origin, comprising four muscles:
Common Extensor Origin Muscles
| Muscle | Function | Involvement in LE | Clinical Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| ECRB (Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis) | Wrist extension, radial deviation | 90% - primary pathology | Deep surface at origin most affected |
| ECRL (Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus) | Wrist extension, radial deviation | Sometimes involved | Superficial to ECRB, may need reflection |
| EDC (Extensor Digitorum Communis) | Finger extension | Rarely involved | Posterior aspect of origin |
| ECU (Extensor Carpi Ulnaris) | Wrist extension, ulnar deviation | Rarely involved | Ulnar aspect of origin |
Biomechanics of injury:
- ECRB origin experiences peak stress during wrist extension with elbow extension
- Pronation increases tension on ECRB
- Eccentric loading during deceleration phase (tennis backhand, hammering)
- Repetitive microtrauma leads to cumulative damage
- Failed healing response due to poor vascularity at tendon-bone interface
The ECRB Underside - Site of Pathology
The undersurface of the ECRB at its origin is the primary site of pathology (Nirschl's original observation). This area is subjected to maximum tensile stress and has relatively poor blood supply. The pathological tissue is grey, friable, and lacks normal tendon architecture - termed "angiofibroblastic hyperplasia" or the "Nirschl lesion."
Pathophysiology - The Degenerative Cascade:
Tendinosis Progression
Organized type I collagen fibers, minimal vascularity, tenocytes aligned with load direction.
Tenocyte activation, increased proteoglycan and water content, reversible thickening. This is NOT lateral epicondylitis yet.
Angiofibroblastic degeneration: disorganized collagen (type III), increased cellularity, neovascularization with nerve ingrowth. This is lateral epicondylitis.
Collagen fiber disruption, partial tears, fibrosis, calcification. May progress to complete tendon failure in severe cases.
Histological features:
- Increased fibroblasts (not inflammatory cells)
- Disorganized type III collagen (instead of normal type I)
- Neovascularization with accompanying nerve ingrowth
- Absence of prostaglandins (explains poor response to NSAIDs)
- Increased substance P and glutamate (pain mediators)
Why It's Called Angiofibroblastic Degeneration
Angio = new blood vessels (neovascularization), fibroblastic = increased fibroblast activity, degeneration = breakdown of normal tendon structure. This term accurately describes the pathology and explains why anti-inflammatory treatments (cortisone, NSAIDs) provide only temporary relief - there's no inflammation to suppress.
Nerve involvement:
- Posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) lies deep to common extensor origin
- PIN compression can coexist with lateral epicondylitis (radial tunnel syndrome)
- Differentiating between lateral epicondylitis and PIN compression is critical
- PIN syndrome: pain over radial tunnel (4cm distal to lateral epicondyle), weakness of finger/thumb extension
Classification Systems
Nirschl Staging of Tendinosis (most widely used)
This classification describes the pathological progression from acute inflammation through chronic degeneration.
| Phase | Pathology | Clinical Features | Management |
|---|---|---|---|
| Phase 1 | Mild inflammation, edema, reversible | Pain after activity, resolves with rest | Rest, ice, activity modification |
| Phase 2 | Angiofibroblastic degeneration | Pain during and after activity | Physiotherapy, eccentric exercises |
| Phase 3 | Structural failure, partial tearing | Pain during activity, limits performance | Consider injection therapy, surgery if refractory |
| Phase 4 | Fibrosis, calcification, chronic | Pain at rest and with activity | Surgical debridement often required |
Nirschl's Key Insight
Nirschl was the first to recognize that lateral epicondylitis is not an inflammatory condition but rather a degenerative tendinosis. His classification emphasizes the progression from reversible changes (Phase 1) to irreversible structural damage (Phase 4), guiding treatment decisions.
Clinical Presentation and Assessment
History:
Symptoms
- Pain: Lateral elbow, radiates to forearm
- Onset: Gradual (overuse) or acute (single event rare)
- Aggravating factors: Gripping, lifting, wrist extension
- Relieving factors: Rest, avoiding provocative activities
- Functional impact: Difficulty with cup/kettle, handshake, turning doorknob
Key Questions
- Occupation: Manual labor, computer work, typing
- Sports: Tennis, golf, racquet sports (technique issues)
- Dominant hand: 75% affect dominant side
- Duration: Acute (weeks) vs chronic (months)
- Previous treatment: What has been tried, any injections
- Red flags: Severe pain at rest, night pain (exclude other pathology)
Physical examination:
Systematic Elbow Examination
| Component | Key Findings | Clinical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Inspection | Usually normal, no swelling/deformity | Massive swelling suggests other pathology (septic arthritis, fracture) |
| Palpation | Tenderness 1cm distal/anterior to lateral epicondyle (ECRB origin) | This is the most reliable clinical finding |
| Range of motion | Full elbow flexion/extension, pronation/supination | Reduced ROM suggests intra-articular pathology |
| Cozen's test | Pain with resisted wrist extension (elbow extended, wrist radially deviated) | High sensitivity for lateral epicondylitis |
| Mill's test | Pain with passive wrist flexion (elbow extended, forearm pronated) | Stretches ECRB, reproduces pain |
| Maudsley's test (resisted middle finger extension) | Pain suggests radial tunnel syndrome (PIN compression) | Helps differentiate from pure lateral epicondylitis |
Special tests in detail:
Cozen's Test - The Gold Standard
Technique:
- Patient seated, elbow extended
- Forearm pronated, wrist in slight radial deviation
- Examiner resists wrist extension (patient makes a fist and extends wrist)
- Pain at lateral epicondyle is positive
Sensitivity: 80-90% Specificity: 70-80%
Why Cozen's Works
Resisted wrist extension loads the ECRB maximally, reproducing the pain at its origin. The test is most sensitive when performed with the elbow fully extended (increases tension on ECRB) and wrist radially deviated (ECRB's primary action).
Exclude Radial Tunnel Syndrome
Radial tunnel syndrome (PIN compression) can mimic lateral epicondylitis but has different treatment. Key distinguishing features:
- Pain is 4-5cm distal to lateral epicondyle (over radial tunnel)
- Weakness of finger/thumb extension (PIN motor function)
- Positive middle finger extension test (Maudsley's)
- No relief with lateral epicondyle cortisone injection
If suspected, consider EMG/NCS and surgical exploration of PIN.
Investigations
Radiographic assessment:
Imaging Protocol
AP and lateral elbow: Usually normal in lateral epicondylitis. Rarely shows calcification in chronic cases.
Purpose: Exclude other pathology (arthritis, loose bodies, fracture, osteochondritis dissecans).
Dynamic assessment: Can visualize tendon thickening, hypoechoic areas (degeneration), neovascularization on Doppler.
Advantages: Cost-effective, dynamic examination, guide injections.
Limitations: Operator-dependent, cannot assess intra-articular pathology.
T1 and T2 sequences: Shows increased signal in ECRB origin (tendinosis), partial tears, bone marrow edema.
Indications: Failed conservative treatment, planning surgery, exclude other causes (radiocapitellar arthritis, osteochondral lesion).
Not routinely required for diagnosis - lateral epicondylitis is a clinical diagnosis.
Electromyography/Nerve Conduction Studies: Used to diagnose radial tunnel syndrome (PIN compression) or cervical radiculopathy.
Indications: Weakness of finger/thumb extension, pain distal to lateral epicondyle, atypical symptoms.
Lateral Epicondylitis is a Clinical Diagnosis
Imaging is NOT required to diagnose lateral epicondylitis. The diagnosis is based on history (overuse, gradual onset) and examination (lateral epicondyle tenderness, positive Cozen's/Mill's test). Imaging is used to exclude other pathology or for pre-operative planning in surgical candidates.
Typical imaging findings:
| Modality | Typical Findings | Clinical Use |
|---|---|---|
| X-ray | Usually normal; occasionally calcification | Exclude arthritis, loose bodies, fracture |
| Ultrasound | ECRB thickening, hypoechoic areas, Doppler flow | Confirm diagnosis, guide injections |
| MRI | High T2 signal in ECRB, partial tears, bone edema | Pre-operative assessment, exclude other causes |
Management Algorithm
Conservative treatment is first-line for ALL patients
Success rate: 80-90% improve with non-operative management
Structured Conservative Protocol
Goals: Reduce pain, protect healing
- Activity modification: Avoid provocative activities (heavy lifting, gripping)
- Ice: 15-20 minutes several times daily
- NSAIDs: Short course (1-2 weeks) for symptom relief only
- Counterforce brace: Worn 2cm distal to lateral epicondyle during activities
- Wrist extension splint: Night splint to rest ECRB
Avoid cortisone injection at this stage - may worsen long-term outcome.
Goals: Restore tendon strength and endurance
Eccentric exercises (Tyler twist protocol):
- Wrist extension with resistance bar
- Slow eccentric lowering (3-5 seconds)
- 3 sets of 15 repetitions, daily
- Progress load as tolerated
Additional physiotherapy:
- Stretching of wrist extensors
- Ultrasound/laser therapy
- Manual therapy/soft tissue massage
- Gradual return to activities
If inadequate response to Phase 1-2:
- GTN (glyceryl trinitrate) patches: Applied to lateral epicondyle, may promote tendon healing
- Topical NSAIDs: Diclofenac gel, safer than oral NSAIDs
- Counterforce bracing: Continue during activities
- Ergonomic assessment: Work/sport modification
Consider injection therapy if still symptomatic at 3 months.
Only after failed structured rehabilitation:
PRP (Platelet-Rich Plasma):
- May be superior to cortisone for long-term outcomes
- NOT superior to placebo in RCTs
- Consider if patient wants to avoid surgery
Cortisone injection:
- Effective short-term relief (4-8 weeks)
- Worse long-term outcomes than PRP or placebo
- Maximum 2-3 injections
- Avoid in younger athletes
Autologous blood injection / dry needling:
- Similar efficacy to PRP
- Stimulates healing response
- Cheaper alternative to PRP
The 6-12 Month Rule
Surgery should only be considered after 6-12 months of failed conservative treatment. This includes:
- Structured eccentric exercise program (minimum 3 months)
- Counterforce bracing
- Activity modification
- At least one trial of injection therapy (PRP or cortisone)
Patients who proceed to surgery without adequate conservative trial have worse outcomes.
Surgical Technique
The Gold Standard Open Technique
Patient Positioning
Setup Checklist
Supine on operating table with arm board.
- Shoulder abducted 90 degrees
- Elbow flexed 90 degrees on arm board
- Forearm supinated for lateral approach
- General anesthesia OR regional block (interscalene or axillary)
- Local anesthetic infiltration of surgical site
- Consider tourniquet for bloodless field (not essential)
- Standard limb drape
- Lateral epicondyle palpated and marked
- Radial head palpated (surgical landmark)
Surgical Approach
Step-by-Step Open Technique
Kaplan approach (modified lateral):
- 4-5cm longitudinal incision centered over lateral epicondyle
- Extends from 2cm proximal to 2cm distal to epicondyle
- Subcutaneous dissection, protect lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm
Identify ECRL (Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus):
- Most anterior muscle of common extensor origin
- Split ECRL longitudinally in line with fibers
- Retract ECRL anteriorly to expose ECRB beneath
ECRB examination:
- Underside of ECRB at origin typically shows grey, friable tissue
- Contrast with normal white, glistening tendon
- Palpate for tears or detachment
Remove pathological tissue:
- Excise grey angiofibroblastic tissue from undersurface of ECRB
- Preserve normal tendon (anterior and posterior margins)
- Extend debridement until normal tendon visualized
- Send specimen for histology (confirm diagnosis)
Prepare lateral epicondyle:
- Lightly decorticate lateral epicondyle with curette or burr
- Create bleeding bone surface for healing
- Drill 2-3 small holes in epicondyle (optional - for anchor if needed)
Reconstruct common extensor origin:
- Repair ECRB to lateral epicondyle with non-absorbable suture
- Side-to-side repair to adjacent normal tendon
- Avoid excessive tension (wrist in neutral position)
Layer closure:
- Close ECRL split with absorbable suture
- Subcutaneous layer with absorbable suture
- Skin with subcuticular or interrupted sutures
- Apply sterile dressing and hinged elbow brace
The Nirschl Lesion
Nirschl described the pathological tissue as "grey, friable, edematous tissue resembling crabmeat". This tissue contrasts sharply with normal white, glistening tendon and is the target for surgical debridement. Complete removal of this tissue is essential for surgical success.
Technical Pearls
Do's (Pearls)
- Identify ECRB carefully: Split ECRL to expose ECRB beneath
- Complete debridement: Remove all grey, friable tissue until normal tendon seen
- Decorticate epicondyle: Create bleeding bone for healing
- Repair securely: ECRB to bone or side-to-side to adjacent tendon
- Protect PIN: Keep deep to supinator, forearm supinated
Don'ts (Pitfalls)
- Don't detach entire origin: Preserve normal tendon anterior/posterior
- Don't release LCL: Posterior to ECRB, essential for elbow stability
- Don't debride too deep: Risk to joint capsule and PIN
- Don't tension repair: Wrist neutral position to avoid re-rupture
- Don't immobilize long-term: Early motion prevents stiffness
Complications
Complications of Lateral Epicondylitis Treatment
| Complication | Incidence | Risk Factors | Management |
|---|---|---|---|
| Recurrent symptoms (conservative) | 10-20% at 1 year | Poor rehabilitation compliance, return to activity too soon | Repeat physiotherapy, consider injection or surgery |
| Cortisone injection complications | 5-10% (skin atrophy, depigmentation) | Superficial injection, multiple injections | Usually cosmetic only, counsel patient pre-injection |
| Surgical failure (recurrent pain) | 5-15% | Inadequate debridement, incomplete conservative trial | Revision surgery, assess for other pathology (PIN, LCL) |
| Posterior interosseous nerve injury | Less than 5% (temporary), less than 1% (permanent) | Deep dissection, arthroscopic technique, forearm pronation | Most resolve spontaneously in 3-6 months; permanent injury rare |
| Elbow stiffness | 5-10% | Prolonged immobilization, extensive dissection | Early motion protocol, physiotherapy, manipulation if severe |
| Lateral elbow instability | Less than 5% | Excessive debridement, LCL damage | Rare; may require LCL reconstruction |
| Infection | Less than 1% | Standard surgical risk | Antibiotics; rarely requires debridement |
Key complications in detail:
1. Recurrent symptoms after surgery (5-15%)
Causes:
- Inadequate debridement of pathological tissue
- Failure to address coexisting pathology (PIN, radial tunnel, plica)
- Poor rehabilitation compliance
- Return to provocative activities too soon
Management:
- Reassess diagnosis (MRI, EMG if suspect PIN)
- Trial of injection therapy
- Revision surgery if clear residual ECRB pathology
2. PIN injury
The posterior interosseous nerve is at risk during:
- Deep dissection through supinator
- Arthroscopic debridement (especially mid-anterolateral portal)
- Excessive retraction with forearm pronated
Prevention:
- Keep forearm supinated during dissection
- Limit depth of dissection (stay superficial to joint capsule)
- Identify and protect PIN if encountered
Presentation:
- Weakness of finger/thumb extension (no sensory loss)
- Usually temporary (neuropraxia)
- Permanent injury rare (less than 1%)
3. Elbow stiffness
Risk factors:
- Prolonged immobilization (more than 2 weeks)
- Extensive capsular damage
- Heterotopic ossification (rare)
Prevention:
- Early motion protocol (begin at 5-7 days)
- Hinged elbow brace allowing motion
- Avoid rigid splinting
The 90% Rule
With appropriate patient selection (failed adequate conservative trial, ECRB pathology confirmed), surgical debridement has 85-95% success rate. The key to success is:
- Adequate conservative trial (6-12 months)
- Complete removal of pathological tissue
- Secure repair of ECRB origin
- Early motion rehabilitation
- Gradual return to activities
Postoperative Care and Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation Timeline
- Dressing: Bulky dressing, remove at 48 hours
- Hinged brace: Apply at 90 degrees, allow 90-120 degrees ROM
- Gentle active motion: Elbow flexion/extension, pronation/supination
- No gripping or wrist exercises yet
- Ice and elevation: Control swelling
- Wound check: Remove sutures at 10-14 days
- Increase ROM: Progress to full extension/flexion
- Gentle strengthening: Begin light grip exercises (putty, stress ball)
- Wrist exercises: Active range of motion only, no resistance
- Continue brace: During activities, wean at 6 weeks
- Avoid: Heavy lifting, forceful gripping
- Wean brace: Discontinue at 6-8 weeks
- Eccentric exercises: Wrist extension with resistance (Tyler twist)
- Progressive loading: Gradually increase resistance
- Light work tasks: Office work, light manual labor
- Goal: Full ROM, 70% strength by 12 weeks
- Full strengthening: Continue progressive resistance
- Sport-specific training: Tennis players - gradual return to play
- Return to work: Manual labor at 3-4 months
- Return to sport: Racquet sports at 4-6 months
- Expect: 90% of final result by 6 months
Early Motion is Critical
Begin gentle active motion within first week to prevent stiffness. The repaired ECRB is secure enough to tolerate motion (no gripping yet). Prolonged immobilization leads to stiffness, which is harder to treat than the original condition.
Key rehabilitation principles:
Early Motion
- Begin within first week
- Prevents elbow stiffness
- Does not compromise repair
- Full ROM by 6 weeks
Gradual Loading
- Eccentric exercises from week 6
- Progressive resistance
- Tyler twist protocol
- Avoid pain with exercises
Patient Education
- Realistic expectations (3-6 months full recovery)
- Avoid premature return to sport
- Gradual return to work/activities
- 85-95% good-excellent outcomes
Red Flags
- Increasing pain (infection, re-injury)
- Weakness (PIN injury)
- Severe stiffness (needs aggressive therapy)
- No improvement by 3 months (consider revision)
Outcomes and Prognosis
Conservative treatment outcomes:
With structured rehabilitation (eccentric exercises, bracing, activity modification):
- 80-90% improve within 12 months
- Natural history is self-limiting - most resolve by 12-18 months regardless of treatment
- Recurrence rate: 10-20% at 1 year
Surgical treatment outcomes:
| Outcome Measure | Open Release | Arthroscopic Release | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Success rate (good-excellent) | 85-95% | 85-95% | No significant difference between techniques |
| Return to work (desk) | 2-3 weeks | 1-2 weeks | Arthroscopic slightly faster |
| Return to work (manual) | 3-4 months | 6-8 weeks | Significant difference favoring arthroscopic |
| Return to sport | 4-6 months | 3-4 months | Gradual return important for both |
| Complication rate | 10-15% | 10-15% | Mostly minor (stiffness, recurrence) |
Predictors of poor outcome:
Patient Factors
- Short conservative trial (less than 6 months)
- Workers' compensation claim
- Secondary gain issues
- Poor rehabilitation compliance
- Smoking (impairs healing)
Surgical Factors
- Inadequate debridement (grey tissue left behind)
- Damage to LCL (instability)
- PIN injury (weakness)
- Prolonged immobilization (stiffness)
- Early return to activity (re-injury)
The Six-Month Rule
Patients who undergo surgery after less than 6 months of conservative treatment have worse outcomes than those who complete an adequate trial. The reasons are multifactorial:
- Natural history of condition (many would have improved anyway)
- Psychological factors (patient not fully committed to recovery)
- Inadequate rehabilitation attempt
- Selection bias (more demanding patients)
Always complete 6-12 months of conservative treatment before considering surgery.
Evidence Base and Key Studies
- RCT of 40 patients comparing autologous blood, PRP, and cortisone injection
- Cortisone superior at 4 weeks for pain relief
- PRP and autologous blood superior to cortisone at 6 months and 1 year
- Cortisone had worse long-term outcomes (higher pain scores at 1 year)
- RCT of 230 patients with chronic lateral epicondylitis
- PRP injection vs bupivacaine injection (placebo control)
- No significant difference in pain scores at 12 or 24 weeks
- PRP group had higher satisfaction but no functional benefit
- Original description of ECRB pathology and surgical technique
- 88 patients with chronic lateral epicondylitis underwent open debridement
- 85% good-excellent results at mean 4.8 years follow-up
- Described 'angiofibroblastic hyperplasia' as pathological finding
- Meta-analysis of 22 studies comparing open and arthroscopic release
- No significant difference in success rates (90% vs 88%)
- Arthroscopic had faster return to work (mean 6 weeks vs 12 weeks)
- Complication rates similar between techniques
- RCT of 165 patients comparing cortisone injection, placebo injection, and no injection
- Cortisone superior to placebo at 4 weeks
- Cortisone WORSE than placebo and no injection at 26 and 52 weeks
- High rate of recurrence after cortisone (72% vs 8% wait-and-see)
Exam Viva Scenarios
Practice these scenarios to excel in your viva examination
Scenario 1: Initial Presentation and Conservative Management
"A 42-year-old carpenter presents with 3 months of lateral elbow pain. It started gradually, worsened with work (hammering, gripping), and now affects his ability to work. He has been taking ibuprofen with minimal relief. On examination, he has tenderness 1cm distal to the lateral epicondyle and a positive Cozen's test. What is your assessment and management?"
Scenario 2: Failed Conservative Management - Surgical Planning
"A 38-year-old tennis coach has had lateral elbow pain for 14 months. She has completed 6 months of structured physiotherapy with eccentric exercises, tried a counterforce brace, had two PRP injections (at 6 and 9 months), and modified her coaching activities. Despite this, she continues to have significant pain affecting her ability to coach and play. MRI shows ECRB tendinosis with partial-thickness tearing. She is requesting surgical intervention. Walk me through your surgical planning and technique."
Scenario 3: Intraoperative Complication - PIN Injury Recognition
"You are performing an open release for lateral epicondylitis. During debridement of the ECRB, you notice the patient develops weakness of finger extension in recovery. The anesthesiologist mentions they saw some twitching of the fingers during your dissection. What has happened and how do you manage this?"
MCQ Practice Points
Pathophysiology Question
Q: What is the characteristic histological finding in lateral epicondylitis? A: Angiofibroblastic degeneration (or angiofibroblastic hyperplasia) - disorganized type III collagen, increased fibroblasts, neovascularization, and absence of inflammatory cells. This is tendinosis, not tendinitis.
Anatomy Question
Q: Which tendon is most commonly affected in lateral epicondylitis? A: Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis (ECRB) - the undersurface of the ECRB at its origin on the lateral epicondyle is the site of pathology in 90% of cases. The grey, friable tissue described by Nirschl is found at this location.
Clinical Diagnosis Question
Q: What is Cozen's test and what does a positive test indicate? A: Resisted wrist extension with the elbow extended and forearm pronated. A positive test (pain at lateral epicondyle) indicates lateral epicondylitis. High sensitivity (80-90%) for the diagnosis.
Conservative Management Question
Q: What percentage of patients with lateral epicondylitis respond to conservative management? A: 80-90% of patients improve with conservative treatment including activity modification, physiotherapy, eccentric exercises, and bracing. Natural history is self-limiting with resolution in 12-18 months in most cases.
Evidence Question - PRP
Q: What does the evidence show regarding PRP injection for lateral epicondylitis? A: PRP may be superior to cortisone for long-term outcomes (Broström 2014), but NOT superior to placebo injection (Mishra 2014). The benefit may be from needling/fenestration rather than PRP itself. Cortisone provides short-term relief but worsens long-term outcomes.
Surgical Indication Question
Q: What is the minimum duration of conservative treatment before considering surgery for lateral epicondylitis? A: 6-12 months of failed conservative treatment including structured physiotherapy with eccentric exercises, bracing, activity modification, and at least one trial of injection therapy. Surgery without adequate conservative trial leads to worse outcomes.
Surgical Anatomy Question
Q: What nerve is at risk during surgical release for lateral epicondylitis and where is it located? A: Posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) - a purely motor branch of the radial nerve located approximately 4-5cm distal to the lateral epicondyle, deep to the supinator muscle at the level of the radial neck. Injury causes finger/thumb extension weakness without sensory loss.
Surgical Technique Question
Q: What is the 'Nirschl lesion' and what should be done with it? A: The grey, friable angiofibroblastic tissue at the undersurface of the ECRB origin, described by Nirschl as resembling "crabmeat." This pathological tissue should be completely excised during surgical debridement until normal white, glistening tendon is visualized.
Outcomes Question
Q: What is the success rate of surgical debridement for lateral epicondylitis after failed conservative treatment? A: 85-95% good-to-excellent results with open or arthroscopic release in appropriately selected patients (those who have failed adequate conservative trial). Recurrence/failure rate is 5-15%.
Australian Context and Considerations
Epidemiology in Australia
- Occupational injury: Common in manual trades (builders, carpenters, mechanics)
- Sports: Tennis, cricket (bowling action), golf
- Age demographics: Peak incidence 35-50 years (working-age population)
- Economic impact: Lost work days, workers' compensation claims
Clinical Guidelines
- ACSQHC: No specific national guidelines for lateral epicondylitis
- Therapeutic Guidelines (eTG): Conservative management first-line
- PBS: PRP not covered (patient-funded treatment)
Australian practice patterns:
Conservative management:
- Physiotherapy widely available through private practice and hospital services
- Eccentric exercise programs (Tyler twist protocol) standard of care
- PRP injections available privately (not PBS-funded, cost $500-800 per injection)
- Cortisone injections covered under Medicare (but evidence suggests avoid)
Surgical management:
- Open release more commonly performed than arthroscopic (surgeon familiarity)
- Day surgery procedure in most cases
- Return to work considerations for manual laborers
Medicolegal considerations:
Documentation and Consent
Key medicolegal points for lateral epicondylitis:
- Adequate conservative trial: Document structured physiotherapy, eccentric exercises, bracing, injection therapy
- Timing: Minimum 6-12 months before surgery
- Surgical consent: Inform about PIN injury risk (less than 5%), recurrence (5-15%), stiffness (5-10%)
- Workers' compensation: Poor prognostic factor - document psychological and secondary gain issues
- Realistic expectations: Surgery is not 100% successful, 3-6 months recovery
Common litigation issues:
- Surgery performed without adequate conservative trial
- PIN injury not recognized or documented
- Failure to warn about recurrence risk
- Unrealistic patient expectations not addressed
Workplace considerations:
- Manual workers often require extended time off (3-4 months post-surgery)
- Ergonomic assessment and work modification important
- Return-to-work planning with occupational therapist
- Graduated return with modified duties initially
LATERAL EPICONDYLITIS (TENNIS ELBOW)
High-Yield Exam Summary
Key Anatomy
- •ECRB origin at lateral epicondyle = primary pathology (90%)
- •Undersurface of ECRB shows grey, friable tissue (Nirschl lesion)
- •PIN located 4-5cm distal to lateral epicondyle (surgical danger)
- •Common extensor origin = ECRB, ECRL, EDC, ECU
Pathophysiology
- •Angiofibroblastic degeneration = tendinosis (NOT tendinitis)
- •Disorganized type III collagen, neovascularization, increased fibroblasts
- •No significant inflammatory cells (poor response to NSAIDs/cortisone)
- •Failed healing response to repetitive microtrauma
Clinical Diagnosis
- •Tenderness 1cm distal/anterior to lateral epicondyle
- •Cozen's test = resisted wrist extension (high sensitivity)
- •Mill's test = passive wrist flexion with forearm pronated
- •Imaging NOT required (clinical diagnosis)
Conservative Management (80-90% Success)
- •Activity modification + counterforce brace + ice
- •Eccentric exercises (Tyler twist protocol) from 6 weeks
- •Avoid cortisone early (worsens long-term outcomes)
- •PRP at 3-6 months if refractory (superior to cortisone, not to placebo)
- •6-12 months trial mandatory before surgery
Surgical Technique
- •Open Nirschl = split ECRL, debride ECRB (remove grey tissue), repair to bone
- •Arthroscopic = portals, debride ECRB, faster recovery (same success rate)
- •Protect PIN = forearm supinated, superficial dissection
- •Early motion at 5-7 days, eccentric exercises at 6 weeks
- •85-95% success with appropriate patient selection