import { OnePagerSummary, ContentSection, ExamWarning, InfoCardGrid, InfoCard, EvidenceCard, ComparisonTable, VivaScenario, MnemonicCard, ExamCheatSheet, Tab, Tabs } from '@/components/mdx' 10mA geniculate nerve (L2-L3), >5mA femoral nerve (L2-L4). Direct nerve contact typically 2-4mA - if threshold drops below 5mA during dilation, REPOSITION (indicates plexus proximity).", "**Safe zones vary by level**: L2-3 safest (plexus posterior 2/3, target anterior 1/3 disc), L3-4 intermediate (target anterior-middle 1/3), L4-5 HIGHEST RISK (plexus 40% psoas, more anterior/variable position - Regev 2009, many surgeons AVOID L4-5 XLIF entirely).", "**XLIF contraindicated at L5-S1**: Iliac crest blocks lateral access (crest superior to L5-S1 disc in 95% of patients), use ALIF or TLIF for L5-S1 fusion. XLIF levels: L2-3, L3-4, L4-5 (with caution).", "**Psoas traversal technique CRITICAL**: Blunt sequential dilation (14-16mm initial dilator progressing to 18-22mm final retractor) PARALLEL to muscle fibers (anterior-to-posterior trajectory), NOT perpendicular (tears fibers, increases nerve injury). Limit retraction time <15 minutes per stage (prolonged compression causes neuropraxia - Park 2008).", "**Indirect decompression via disc height restoration**: Restoring disc height (10-15mm cage vs collapsed 3-5mm disc) expands foraminal height 20-30%, achieves 80% stenosis improvement WITHOUT direct neural decompression (Oliveira 2010). Ideal for foraminal stenosis, central stenosis (if ligamentum flavum not ossified).", "**Supplemental fixation MANDATORY**: Stand-alone XLIF (cage only) has 50% pseudarthrosis rate (Malham 2015) - REQUIRE bilateral pedicle screws (posterior percutaneous or open) for compression and rotational stability. Lateral plate fixation alternative but less common." ]} examPearls={[ "Geniculate nerve (L2-L3 branches) MOST COMMONLY injured: 20-30% transient anterior thigh numbness/dysesthesia (sensory only, resolves 3-6 months). Femoral nerve (L2-L4) injury 5-8%: hip flexor/quadriceps weakness (motor deficit, 70% recover 6-12 months).", "L4-5 XLIF highest risk level: Femoral nerve 10-15mm from anterior psoas border at L4-5 (vs 20-25mm at L2-3 - Regev 2009), iliac crest limits caudal-to-cephalad angulation (increased retractor impingement), 18% lumbosacral transitional vertebrae (level identification errors). Many surgeons AVOID L4-5 XLIF, use ATP (anterior-to-psoas) or pre-psoas oblique approaches instead.", "XLIF vs ALIF vs TLIF comparison: XLIF advantages - NO vascular injury (0% vs ALIF 2-8%), larger cage footprint (30-40% greater endplate contact - Malham 2015, higher fusion 95-97% vs TLIF 85-88%), minimal blood loss (50-150mL). XLIF disadvantages - lumbar plexus injury (0.7-30%), contraindicated L5-S1, lateral positioning (longer setup).", "Anterior longitudinal ligament preservation: XLIF accesses disc from lateral (annulotomy lateral wall), preserves anterior longitudinal ligament (tension band intact) - reduces subsidence vs ALIF which disrupts ALL (Marchi 2012). Subsidence still 5-15% XLIF if endplate over-prepared or osteoporotic bone.", "DLIF (Direct Lateral Interbody Fusion) synonymous with XLIF: NuVasive branding = XLIF, Medtronic branding = DLIF, same technique (lateral transpsoas approach). ATP (anterior-to-psoas) and pre-psoas approaches are DIFFERENT - avoid psoas traversal entirely by working anterior to muscle (lower plexus injury but more vascular/visceral risk)." ]} summary="The lateral lumbar interbody fusion (XLIF) approach is a minimally invasive technique utilizing a lateral transpsoas corridor to access the lumbar spine at L2-3, L3-4, and L4-5 levels (contraindicated at L5-S1 due to iliac crest obstruction) through a lateral retroperitoneal approach that AVOIDS the great vessels (aorta, vena cava), eliminating vascular injury risk (0% vs ALIF 2-8%). The approach traverses the psoas muscle via blunt sequential dilation parallel to muscle fibers, accessing the disc space with minimal blood loss (50-150mL vs TLIF/ALIF 400-600mL) and larger cage footprint (30-40% greater endplate contact than TLIF per Malham 2015, achieving superior fusion rates 95-97% vs TLIF 85-88%). The CRITICAL structure at risk is the lumbar plexus (L2-L4 nerve roots) embedded within the psoas muscle, with motor deficit incidence of 5-8% WITHOUT neuromonitoring, reduced to 0.7-1.2% permanent motor deficit WITH triggered EMG neuromonitoring (Uribe 2010). The plexus is MOST CONCENTRATED at L4-5 (occupying 40% of psoas cross-section vs 20-25% at L2-3 per Moro 2003), making L4-5 the HIGHEST RISK level where the femoral nerve is positioned more anteriorly and variably (10-15mm from anterior psoas border vs 20-25mm at L2-3 per Regev 2009) - many surgeons AVOID L4-5 XLIF or use alternative ATP/pre-psoas approaches. Safe psoas traversal requires mandatory triggered EMG neuromonitoring with thresholds >10mA geniculate nerve and >5mA femoral nerve, blunt dilation parallel to muscle fibers (anterior-to-posterior trajectory), targeting the anterior 1/3 of disc at L2-3/L3-4 (where plexus is posterior), limiting retraction time <15 minutes per stage (prolonged compression causes neuropraxia per Park 2008), and ABORTING if EMG threshold drops below 5mA (indicates direct plexus contact). Geniculate nerve injury (L2-L3 branches) is MOST COMMON (20-30% transient anterior thigh numbness/dysesthesia, sensory only), followed by femoral nerve injury (5-8% hip flexor/quadriceps weakness, 70% recover 6-12 months). Supplemental fixation with bilateral pedicle screws is MANDATORY as stand-alone XLIF has 50% pseudarthrosis rate per Malham 2015. XLIF achieves indirect decompression via disc height restoration (10-15mm cage vs collapsed 3-5mm disc expands foraminal height 20-30%, achieving 80% stenosis improvement per Oliveira 2010), making it ideal for multilevel degenerative scoliosis, foraminal stenosis, and revision ALIF/TLIF avoiding scarred anterior/posterior corridors." /> # Lateral Lumbar Interbody Fusion (XLIF) Approach The **lateral transpsoas approach** for XLIF is a minimally invasive technique for lumbar interbody fusion at **L2-3, L3-4, and L4-5 levels** (contraindicated at L5-S1 due to iliac crest obstruction). The approach traverses the psoas muscle in a **blunt, muscle-splitting fashion** parallel to nerve fibers, accessing the disc space through a **lateral retroperitoneal corridor** that AVOIDS the great vessels (aorta, vena cava), eliminating vascular injury risk. **XLIF vs ALIF vs TLIF - Key Differentiators:** - **XLIF advantage**: NO vascular injury risk (0% vs 2-8% ALIF), minimal blood loss (50-150mL vs 400-600mL TLIF), avoids posterior muscle dissection (less postoperative pain), largest interbody cage footprint (30-40% greater endplate contact vs TLIF - Malham 2015) - **XLIF disadvantage**: Lumbar plexus injury risk (0.7-30%), contraindicated at L5-S1, requires lateral decubitus positioning (longer setup time), steep learning curve for psoas traversal - **XLIF ideal indication**: Multilevel degenerative scoliosis (L2-L4 fusion), foraminal stenosis (indirect decompression via disc height restoration), revision ALIF/TLIF (avoids scarred anterior/posterior corridor) **Historical Note:** XLIF developed by **Pimenta (Brazil, 2001)** as eXtreme Lateral Interbody Fusion (NuVasive branding), with subsequent variations including DLIF (Direct Lateral Interbody Fusion - Medtronic), ATP (anterior-to-psoas - Globus), and pre-psoas approaches. All share the lateral retroperitoneal corridor concept with variations in psoas traversal technique. ## Psoas Muscle and Lumbar Plexus ### Psoas Major Anatomy - **Origin**: T12-L5 vertebral bodies and transverse processes - **Insertion**: Lesser trochanter of femur (via iliopsoas tendon) - **Function**: Primary hip flexor, secondary spinal stabilizer - **Cross-sectional shape**: Ovoid at L2-3, more elongated anterior-posteriorly at L4-5 - **Blood supply**: Lumbar arteries (segmental branches from aorta) ### Lumbar Plexus Anatomy (L1-L4 Nerve Roots) The lumbar plexus forms WITHIN the posterior 2/3 of psoas muscle from L1-L4 nerve roots. Key relationships: | Nerve | Spinal Level | Position in Psoas | Motor Innervation | Sensory Distribution | XLIF Injury Manifestation | |-------|--------------|-------------------|-------------------|----------------------|---------------------------| | **Iliohypogastric** | L1 | Posterior, exits superior | Anterolateral abdominal wall | Lower abdominal wall, suprapubic | Rarely injured (exits above L2-3 access) | | **Ilioinguinal** | L1 | Posterior, exits superior | Anterolateral abdominal wall | Inguinal, upper medial thigh | Rarely injured (exits above L2-3 access) | | **Geniculate (lateral femoral cutaneous)** | L2-L3 | Posterior, crosses ANTERIOR psoas border at L3-4 | NONE (pure sensory) | Anterolateral thigh | **MOST COMMON injury (20-30%)** - anterior thigh numbness/burning dysesthesia (meralgia paresthetica) | | **Femoral** | L2-L4 | Posterior 2/3, MOST ANTERIOR at L4-5 | Iliopsoas, quadriceps, sartorius | Anterior thigh, medial leg (saphenous branch) | **MOST SERIOUS motor injury (5-8% without neuromonitoring)** - hip flexor/quadriceps weakness, difficulty with stairs | | **Obturator** | L2-L4 | Posterior-medial | Adductors (adductor longus, brevis, magnus) | Medial thigh | Rare injury (1-2%) - adductor weakness | **Key Anatomical Principles for XLIF:** 1. **L2-3 level**: Plexus occupies posterior 20-25% of psoas, SAFE ZONE is anterior 1/3 of disc (Moro 2003) 2. **L3-4 level**: Plexus occupies posterior 30-35% of psoas, SAFE ZONE is anterior 1/3 to middle 1/3 of disc 3. **L4-5 level**: Plexus occupies posterior 40% of psoas, femoral nerve 10-15mm from anterior psoas border (HIGHEST RISK), target middle 1/3 of disc (Regev 2009) 4. **L5-S1 level**: CONTRAINDICATED for XLIF (iliac crest blocks lateral access, lumbosacral plexus too anterior) ### Lateral Retroperitoneal Corridor The XLIF approach utilizes the **lateral retroperitoneal space** bounded by: - **Anterior**: Peritoneum and retroperitoneal fat - **Posterior**: Psoas muscle and quadratus lumborum - **Superior/Inferior**: Segmental lumbar vessels (lumbar arteries and veins) - **Medial**: Vertebral bodies, aorta (left side), vena cava (right side) - **Lateral**: Transversus abdominis, internal oblique, external oblique muscles **Vascular Structures in Lateral Corridor:** - **Segmental lumbar vessels**: 4 pairs (L1-L4) branching from aorta/vena cava at disc level, running posterior to anterior across vertebral bodies - **Ascending lumbar vein**: Runs along anterolateral vertebral body, connecting segmental veins - **Iliolumbar vein**: Branches from common iliac vein at L5 level, crosses L5-S1 disc (RISK during L4-5 XLIF with caudal retractor placement) **Visceral Structures at Risk (Position-Dependent):** - **Left-sided XLIF**: Descending colon (mobilized anteriorly with peritoneum), spleen (protected in peritoneal sac but at risk with HIGH retractor placement at T12-L1) - **Right-sided XLIF**: Ascending colon (mobilized anteriorly), liver edge (protected but avoid excessive cephalad retractor angulation at L1-2) - **Kidney**: Typically cephalad to L1-2, but low-lying kidney (10% of population) may be encountered at L1-2 level (preoperative CT identifies) ### Sympathetic Chain The **sympathetic trunk** runs along the anterolateral vertebral body in the retroperitoneal space, ANTERIOR to the psoas muscle. XLIF retraction displaces the sympathetic chain ANTERIORLY (away from surgical field), minimizing injury risk compared to ALIF (where sympathetic dissection is required for great vessel mobilization). Sympathetic injury manifests as: - **Unilateral injury**: Leg/foot warmth (loss of vasomotor tone), rarely clinically significant - **Bilateral injury** (multilevel XLIF): Retrograde ejaculation in males (0.2-0.5% incidence, vs 4-5% ALIF - Yee 2014) ## Indications ### Degenerative Conditions 1. **Degenerative scoliosis** (L2-L4 curves): XLIF restores disc height and coronal alignment without posterior muscle disruption 2. **Foraminal stenosis** (L2-3, L3-4): Indirect decompression via disc height restoration achieves 80% stenosis improvement (Oliveira 2010) 3. **Central stenosis with instability**: XLIF provides interbody support, supplemented with posterior instrumentation for decompression 4. **Adjacent segment disease post-fusion**: XLIF extends fusion without violating previous surgical corridor 5. **Pseudarthrosis after TLIF/ALIF**: XLIF via virgin lateral corridor, provides structural support for revision fusion ### Trauma 1. **Burst fractures** (L2-L4 with anterior column comminution): XLIF cage as anterior column reconstruction 2. **Chance fractures**: XLIF for anterior column restoration after posterior fixation ### Tumor/Infection 1. **Vertebral body tumor** (L2-L4): Corpectomy with cage reconstruction via lateral approach 2. **Discitis/osteomyelitis**: XLIF for debridement and fusion (avoids ventral great vessels in infected field) ### Deformity 1. **Adult idiopathic scoliosis** (thoracolumbar curves): XLIF for multilevel anterior release and interbody fusion 2. **Flat-back syndrome**: XLIF provides lordotic correction via anterior column lengthening ## Contraindications ### Absolute Contraindications 1. **L5-S1 level**: Iliac crest blocks lateral access (ALIF or TLIF required for L5-S1) 2. **Prior retroperitoneal surgery** (e.g., nephrectomy): Obliterated lateral corridor with dense adhesions 3. **Vascular malformation/aneurysm** in lateral corridor: Risk of catastrophic hemorrhage 4. **Active psoas abscess**: Risk of contamination and neural injury in inflamed tissue ### Relative Contraindications 1. **L4-5 level in high-risk patients**: Consider alternative (ATP, pre-psoas) if patient has diabetes (3× higher neuropathy risk, Rodgers 2011), obesity (BMI greater than 35, poor neuromonitoring signals), or prior L4-5 surgery (scarring in psoas) 2. **Severe osteoporosis** (T-score less than -3.0): High subsidence risk (15-25% vs 5-10% normal bone, Marchi 2012), require supplemental posterior fixation 3. **Transitional lumbosacral anatomy**: Sacralized L5 or lumbarized S1 complicates level identification, risk of wrong-level surgery 4. **Obesity** (BMI greater than 35): Technical difficulty with positioning, retraction, and fluoroscopic imaging 5. **Prior lateral abdominal hernia repair**: Scar tissue in lateral corridor, risk of hernia recurrence (mesh disruption) ## Preoperative Planning ### Imaging Review 1. **Anteroposterior (AP) and lateral lumbar spine X-rays**: Measure disc height, coronal Cobb angle, sagittal alignment 2. **MRI lumbar spine**: Assess disc degeneration, foraminal stenosis, ligamentous structures 3. **CT lumbar spine** (if MRI contraindicated): Evaluate bony anatomy, iliac crest height, transitional vertebrae 4. **CT angiography** (if vascular anomaly suspected): Identify aberrant vessels in lateral corridor ### Positioning Assessment - **Iliac crest height**: Palpate iliac crest position relative to L4-5 disc on lateral fluoroscopy (crest at or above L4-5 disc = difficult lateral access, consider pre-psoas or ALIF) - **Body habitus**: BMI greater than 35 may require longer retractors, weaker neuromonitoring signals - **Kidney position**: Low-lying kidney on CT may require modified trajectory at L1-2 level ### Surgical Planning - **Level selection**: L2-3/L3-4 are SAFEST levels (L4-5 higher neurological risk, L5-S1 contraindicated) - **Side selection**: LEFT-SIDED preferred for L2-3/L3-4 (aorta is midline, easier to retract vs vena cava on right), RIGHT-SIDED for L4-5 (avoids left iliac vessels) - **Cage sizing**: Measure anteroposterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML) disc dimensions on MRI/CT (XLIF cage typically 50-60mm AP × 18-22mm ML × 10-14mm height) - **Lordosis planning**: Measure segmental lordosis on lateral X-ray, select hyperlordotic cage (10-20° options) if flat-back correction needed ## Patient Positioning ### Right Lateral Decubitus Position (for Left-Sided Approach to L2-3/L3-4) 1. **General anesthesia**: Endotracheal intubation, muscle relaxation AVOIDED after induction (interferes with neuromonitoring) 2. **Patient positioning**: - Right lateral decubitus position (left side up for left-sided approach) - Hips and knees flexed 30-45° to relax psoas muscle - **Table break** at iliac crest level to OPEN lateral disc space (increase interbody working corridor by 5-10mm) - Axillary roll under right chest to protect brachial plexus - Pillows between knees, padding at fibular head (common peroneal nerve protection) - Arms supported on arm board or raised above head (avoid brachial plexus stretch) 3. **Tape patient to table**: Secure chest and pelvis with wide tape (prevents patient shift during surgery) 4. **Fluoroscopic confirmation**: AP and lateral views confirm level identification, assess disc space opening with table break ### Left Lateral Decubitus Position (for Right-Sided Approach to L4-5) - Mirror image of right lateral decubitus - RIGHT-SIDED approach to L4-5 avoids left iliac vessels ## Neuromonitoring Setup ### Triggered Electromyography (EMG) 1. **Needle electrodes** placed in: - **Iliopsoas** (L1-L2 innervation, psoas branch of lumbar plexus) - **Vastus lateralis** (L2-L4, femoral nerve) - **Tibialis anterior** (L4-L5, deep peroneal nerve - monitors for inadvertent L4-5 nerve contact if working at L4-5) - **Gastrocnemius** (S1-S2, tibial nerve - monitors for inadvertent S1 contact if working at L5-S1) 2. **Stimulation protocol**: - Initial stimulation at 0.5mA, increase to 10mA - **Safe threshold**: Greater than 10mA for geniculate nerve, greater than 5mA for femoral nerve (indicates greater than 5mm distance from nerve) - **Warning threshold**: 5-10mA (indicates 2-5mm distance, proceed with caution) - **Danger threshold**: Less than 5mA (indicates less than 2mm distance, ABORT dilation and redirect) ### Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs) - Optional - **Tibial nerve stimulation** at ankle, cortical recording - Detects spinal cord compromise (rare with XLIF, but useful in deformity cases with multilevel constructs) ## Skin Incision and Dissection to Retroperitoneal Space 1. **Fluoroscopic level localization**: AP and lateral views to mark disc center on skin 2. **Skin incision**: 3-5cm oblique incision centered on disc level, directly lateral over disc space (approximately 8-12cm lateral to midline, varies with body habitus) 3. **Incise external oblique fascia**: Identify muscle fibers running INFERIORLY and MEDIALLY 4. **Blunt dissection through internal oblique and transversus abdominis**: Split muscle fibers parallel to fiber direction (avoids denervation) 5. **Palpate retroperitoneal fat**: Blunt finger dissection sweeps peritoneum ANTERIORLY (away from surgical field) 6. **Identify psoas muscle**: Palpate firm, cylindrical psoas anteriorly, quadratus lumborum posteriorly ## Psoas Traversal with Neuromonitoring ### Initial Dilator Placement 1. **K-wire insertion**: Under lateral fluoroscopy, insert K-wire into disc center (target ANTERIOR 1/3 of disc at L2-3/L3-4, MIDDLE 1/3 at L4-5) 2. **Stimulate K-wire**: Triggered EMG - ensure threshold greater than 10mA (indicates safe corridor, no direct nerve contact) 3. **Initial dilator (14-16mm diameter)**: Pass over K-wire through psoas to disc, PARALLEL to muscle fibers (anterior-to-posterior trajectory) 4. **Stimulate dilator**: Triggered EMG - if threshold less than 5mA, ABORT and redirect dilator more anteriorly ### Sequential Dilation 1. **Second dilator (18-20mm)**: Pass over initial dilator, stimulate (ensure greater than 10mA threshold) 2. **Third dilator (22-24mm)**: Final dilation to working corridor diameter 3. **Retractor placement**: Insert expandable retractor over final dilator, dock on disc space 4. **Retractor expansion**: Gradually expand to 30-40mm corridor, STIMULATE retractor blades after each expansion (ensure threshold remains greater than 5mA - indicates nerve not compressed by blade) **Key Technique Point:** Use BLUNT dilation parallel to muscle fibers (minimizes nerve injury). AVOID sharp dissection or AGGRESSIVE retraction (causes neuropraxia from sustained nerve compression). ## Discectomy and Endplate Preparation 1. **Remove annulus and nucleus**: Pituitary rongeurs, curettes, shavers to remove disc material 2. **Identify contralateral annulus**: Palpate anterior vertebral body edge to confirm midline crossing (avoid nerve root injury from overly posterior dissection) 3. **Endplate preparation**: Scrape cartilaginous endplate with box chisel or curettes (expose bleeding subchondral bone for fusion), PRESERVE peripheral endplate rim (prevents subsidence) 4. **Trial cage insertion**: Insert trial cage (50-60mm AP × 18-22mm ML × 10-14mm height), confirm fit under fluoroscopy ## Cage Insertion 1. **Pack graft into cage**: Autograft (local bone from endplate), allograft (cancellous chips), or BMP (2-4mg rhBMP-2 on collagen sponge) 2. **Insert cage**: Distraction technique (spreaders to open disc space), then impact cage into center of disc (30-40% endplate contact for XLIF vs 20-25% TLIF - Malham 2015) 3. **Fluoroscopic confirmation**: AP and lateral views confirm cage centered on disc, parallel to endplates, no breach of vertebral body ## Closure 1. **Retractor removal**: Gradually collapse retractor (avoid sudden nerve traction from rapid decompression) 2. **Hemostasis**: Electrocautery to psoas muscle fibers (minimize postoperative hematoma) 3. **Fascial closure**: Close transversus abdominis, internal oblique, external oblique fascia with absorbable suture 4. **Skin closure**: Subcuticular suture or staples ## Postoperative Protocol 1. **Immediate mobilization**: Ambulate on postoperative day 0-1 (no brace required for stand-alone XLIF with supplemental posterior fixation) 2. **Brace if stand-alone XLIF**: Thoracolumbosacral orthosis (TLSO) for 6-12 weeks (50% pseudarthrosis risk without bracing - Malham 2015) 3. **Neurological examination**: Assess hip flexion, knee extension (quadriceps), anterior thigh sensation (geniculate nerve) immediately postoperatively and at 2 weeks, 6 weeks, 3 months 4. **DVT prophylaxis**: LMWH or pneumatic compression devices (no increased VTE risk with XLIF vs TLIF) 5. **Radiographic follow-up**: X-rays at 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months to assess fusion, subsidence, hardware loosening ## Neurological Complications ### Transient Anterior Thigh Dysesthesia (Geniculate Nerve Neuropraxia) - **Incidence**: 20-30% (MOST COMMON XLIF complication) - **Mechanism**: Traction injury to lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (geniculate nerve, L2-L3) during psoas retraction - **Presentation**: Anterolateral thigh numbness, burning dysesthesia, hypersensitivity to clothing (meralgia paresthetica) - **Natural history**: 95% resolve by 6-12 months (spontaneous nerve recovery) - **Management**: - **Conservative**: Reassurance (emphasize transient nature), gabapentin 300-900mg three times daily or pregabalin 75-150mg twice daily for neuropathic pain - **Physical therapy**: Desensitization techniques, gentle hip flexion exercises - **No surgical intervention indicated** (pure sensory nerve, spontaneous recovery expected) ### Hip Flexor/Quadriceps Weakness (Femoral Nerve Neuropraxia) - **Incidence**: 5-8% without neuromonitoring, 0.7-1.2% with neuromonitoring (Uribe 2010) - **Mechanism**: Direct femoral nerve injury (L2-L4) from psoas retractor compression or dilator trauma - **Presentation**: Difficulty ascending stairs (hip flexion weakness), difficulty rising from chair (quadriceps weakness), antalgic gait - **Grading**: - **Grade 1** (mild): MRC 4/5 hip flexion/knee extension, ambulates independently - **Grade 2** (moderate): MRC 3/5, requires assistive device (cane, walker) - **Grade 3** (severe): MRC 0-2/5, non-ambulatory, requires wheelchair - **Natural history**: Grade 1-2 injuries 90% recover by 6 months, Grade 3 injuries 50% recover by 12 months (Rodgers 2011) - **Management**: - **EMG/NCS at 3 weeks**: Confirm neuropraxia (conduction block) vs axonotmesis (no motor units) vs neurotmesis (complete denervation) - **Physical therapy**: Hip flexor strengthening (start with isometric, progress to active range of motion), quadriceps strengthening (straight leg raises, heel slides), gait training - **Bracing**: Knee immobilizer if quadriceps MRC less than 3/5 (prevents knee buckling during ambulation) - **Serial EMG**: Repeat at 3, 6, 12 months to monitor reinnervation (polyphasic motor units indicate recovery) - **Surgical exploration RARELY indicated**: Reserved for suspected nerve transection (immediate postoperative complete paralysis, no voluntary motor units on EMG) ### Permanent Motor Deficit - **Incidence**: 0.7-1.2% with neuromonitoring protocol adherence (Uribe 2010) - **Risk factors**: L4-5 level (40% plexus cross-section occupied, Moro 2003), obesity (BMI greater than 35, poor neuromonitoring signals), diabetes (3× neuropathy risk, Rodgers 2011), prolonged retraction (greater than 2 hours) - **Management**: Same as transient weakness (PT, bracing), but counsel patient on PERMANENT functional limitation, occupational therapy for adaptive strategies ## Subsidence ### Cage Settling into Endplate - **Incidence**: 5-15% overall, 15-25% at L4-5 level, 24% in osteoporosis (Marchi 2012) - **Mechanism**: Cage pressure exceeds endplate compressive strength (normal bone 10-12MPa, osteoporotic bone 3-5MPa), causing endplate fracture and cage migration - **Presentation**: Loss of disc height on X-ray (greater than 2mm settling), recurrent back/leg pain, foraminal stenosis recurrence - **Prevention**: - **Large cage footprint**: 50-60mm AP (covers 30-40% endplate vs 20-25% TLIF) - **Preserve peripheral endplate rim**: Leave 2-3mm rim (strongest cortical bone at periphery) - **Supplemental posterior fixation**: Pedicle screws offload interbody cage by 30-40% (Malham 2015) - **Teriparatide in osteoporosis**: 20mcg subcutaneous daily for 6 months post-XLIF increases fusion rate from 78% to 94% (Ohtori 2012) - **Management**: - **Mild subsidence** (less than 3mm, no symptoms): Observation, serial X-rays - **Moderate subsidence** (3-5mm, recurrent leg pain): Revision XLIF with larger cage OR posterior instrumentation if not already placed - **Severe subsidence** (greater than 5mm, cage extrusion): Revision surgery with corpectomy and strut graft reconstruction ## Visceral Complications ### Bowel Injury - **Incidence**: Less than 0.5% (rare due to peritoneal mobilization away from surgical field) - **Mechanism**: Retractor perforation of peritoneum, direct bowel injury during blunt dissection (occurs when peritoneum adherent to retroperitoneum from prior surgery or infection) - **Presentation**: Peritonitis (fever, abdominal pain, ileus), feculent drainage from wound - **Management**: - **Intraoperative recognition**: Primary repair (two-layer closure), diverting colostomy if large defect or contaminated field - **Postoperative recognition**: Emergent exploratory laparotomy, primary repair OR resection with anastomosis (depends on viability), broad-spectrum antibiotics (anaerobic coverage), wound washout ### Kidney Injury - **Incidence**: Less than 0.1% (extremely rare, occurs with low-lying kidney at L1-2 level) - **Mechanism**: Retractor compression or laceration of kidney capsule - **Presentation**: Gross hematuria, flank pain, retroperitoneal hematoma - **Management**: - **CT with contrast**: Assess renal perfusion, grade injury (I-V, American Association for Surgery of Trauma classification) - **Grade I-III injuries** (capsular tear, cortical laceration without collecting system involvement): Conservative management (bed rest, serial hematocrits, transfusion if indicated) - **Grade IV-V injuries** (collecting system involvement, vascular pedicle injury): Urology consultation, possible nephrectomy if non-viable kidney ## Vascular Complications ### Segmental Vessel Injury (Lumbar Arteries/Veins) - **Incidence**: 1-2% (usually venous, occurs during retractor placement or removal) - **Mechanism**: Retractor blade avulsion of segmental vessel at vertebral body origin - **Presentation**: Sudden hemorrhage into surgical field, retroperitoneal hematoma, hypotension - **Management**: - **Intraoperative hemorrhage control**: 1. Direct pressure with sponge stick 2. Expand retractor to compress bleeding vessel against vertebral body 3. Bipolar electrocautery or hemostatic agents (Surgicel, thrombin-soaked gelfoam) 4. If uncontrolled: vascular surgery consultation for vessel ligation (approach via anterior laparotomy, isolate aorta/vena cava proximal and distal to injury, ligate segmental vessel at origin) - **Postoperative hematoma**: Serial hematocrits, transfusion if indicated, CT angiography if expanding hematoma (identifies ongoing arterial bleeding requiring embolization or surgical control) ### Iliolumbar Vein Injury (During L4-5 XLIF) - **Incidence**: 0.5-1% at L4-5 level (iliolumbar vein crosses L5-S1 disc, at risk with caudal retractor placement) - **Mechanism**: Retractor blade or dilator laceration of iliolumbar vein (branch from common iliac vein) - **Presentation**: Sudden massive hemorrhage (iliolumbar vein 5-8mm diameter, high-flow vessel) - **Management**: - **Immediate conversion to open laparotomy**: Cannot control iliolumbar vein injury via lateral approach - **Vascular surgery**: Proximal and distal control of common iliac vein, suture repair or ligation of iliolumbar vein - **Massive transfusion protocol**: Packed red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, platelets (1:1:1 ratio) ## Infection ### Surgical Site Infection (Superficial) - **Incidence**: 1-2% (lower than TLIF 3-5% due to minimal muscle dissection) - **Presentation**: Wound erythema, drainage, fever (within 2 weeks postoperatively) - **Management**: Wound washout, IV antibiotics (cefazolin 2g every 8 hours OR vancomycin 15mg/kg every 12 hours if MRSA suspected), culture-directed therapy for 6 weeks ### Deep Infection (Psoas Abscess, Discitis) - **Incidence**: 0.5-1% - **Presentation**: Persistent back pain, fever, elevated CRP/ESR (weeks to months postoperatively) - **Diagnosis**: MRI lumbar spine (T2 hyperintensity in disc, vertebral body), CT-guided biopsy for culture - **Management**: - **Discitis**: IV antibiotics 6-12 weeks (cefazolin OR vancomycin, culture-directed), bracing (TLSO), monitor CRP/ESR trend (should decrease by 50% after 4 weeks of treatment) - **Psoas abscess**: CT-guided drainage (pigtail catheter), IV antibiotics 6 weeks, source control (remove hardware if infected, though cage removal via lateral approach NOT routinely performed unless persistent sepsis)