The Kocher-Langenbeck approach is the workhorse posterior exposure for acetabular fracture surgery, providing direct access to the posterior column and posterior wall. Originally described by Kocher (1887) for hip arthrodesis and later modified by Langenbeck, the approach develops an internervous plane between the superior gluteal nerve (gluteus medius and minimus) and inferior gluteal nerve (gluteus maximus). The sciatic nerve runs posterior to the acetabulum and is the structure most at risk—its location must be identified early, and traction minimized by releasing all short external rotators from piriformis to quadratus femoris. Prone positioning is standard (gravity assists exposure, easier nerve identification), though lateral decubitus is acceptable. Heterotopic ossification occurs in 10-15% of cases without prophylaxis—indomethacin 75mg daily for 6 weeks (starting within 24 hours) or single-dose radiation (700-800 cGy within 72 hours) is mandatory unless contraindicated. The approach provides excellent visualization of posterior column, posterior wall, and quadrilateral plate, but anterior column and anterior wall remain poorly visualized (requires combined ilioinguinal approach for both-column fractures).

Acetabular Fracture Patterns (Letournel Classification)

Primary Indications:

1. Posterior Wall Fractures

   • Greater than 40% of wall involvement (CT assessment)
   • Associated hip subluxation or dislocation
   • Marginal impaction requiring elevation
   • Failure of closed reduction

2. Posterior Column Fractures

   • Displaced fractures (greater than 2-3mm)
   • Posterior column with posterior wall component
   • Extension into quadrilateral plate

Secondary Indications:

3. Transverse Fractures

   • Transtectal pattern (through superior acetabulum)
   • Juxtatectal pattern (may require ilioinguinal extension)
   • Infratectal pattern (low transverse fracture)

4. T-Type Fractures

   • Superior stem component accessible via Kocher-Langenbeck
   • May require combined approach for anterior column

5. Posterior Column + Posterior Wall

   • Standard indication for Kocher-Langenbeck
   • Most common pattern requiring surgery (approximately 25% of all acetabular fractures)

Contraindications

Absolute:

• Active deep infection overlying proposed surgical site
• Medical unfitness for prolonged surgery (ASA 4-5 with prohibitive risk)

Relative:

• Severe osteoporosis (fixation challenges, consider arthroplasty)
• Delay greater than 3 weeks (increased HO risk, difficult reduction)
• Sciatic nerve palsy present for greater than 24 hours (nerve exploration urgency)
• Anterior column fractures (requires ilioinguinal or anterior approach)
• Both-column fractures (may require combined approach or ilioinguinal alone)

Alternative Approaches

• Ilioinguinal approach: Anterior column, anterior wall, both-column fractures
• Extended iliofemoral approach: Complex fractures requiring simultaneous anterior and posterior access
• Stoppa approach: Quadrilateral plate and medial wall
• Combined approaches: Both-column fractures, complex T-type patterns

Neurovascular Anatomy

Sciatic Nerve:

• Origin: Sacral plexus (L4-S3)
• Exit: Greater sciatic notch, inferior to piriformis muscle
• Division: Common peroneal (lateral) and tibial (medial) components
  • 60% divide at level of greater sciatic notch
  • 40% divide proximal to notch
• Course: Runs posterior to short external rotators and posterior acetabulum
• Relation to acetabulum: 1-2 cm posterior at level of ischial tuberosity
• Vulnerability: Common peroneal component more lateral and superficial, higher traction injury risk

Superior Gluteal Neurovascular Bundle:

• Exit: ABOVE piriformis muscle through greater sciatic notch
• Course: Runs between gluteus medius and minimus
• Clinical importance: Injured if piriformis released too far superiorly or proximally
• Result of injury: Trendelenburg gait (gluteus medius/minimus weakness)

Inferior Gluteal Neurovascular Bundle:

• Exit: Below piriformis muscle
• Course: Enters gluteus maximus from deep surface
• Protection: Safe during muscle splitting as vessels run longitudinally

Medial Circumflex Femoral Artery (Branch of Profunda Femoris):

• Course: Passes posterior to quadratus femoris
• Importance: Main blood supply to femoral head (lateral epiphyseal artery)
• Risk: Injured during anterior dissection along quadrilateral plate or with excessive retraction of quadratus femoris

Muscular Anatomy

Gluteus Maximus:

• Origin: Ilium posterior to posterior gluteal line, sacrum, coccyx
• Insertion: Gluteal tuberosity of femur (upper fibers), iliotibial tract (lower fibers)
• Innervation: Inferior gluteal nerve
• Action: Hip extension and external rotation
• Surgical consideration: Split in line with fibers to minimize denervation

Short External Rotators (Lateral to Medial):

1. Piriformis

   • Origin: Anterior sacrum
   • Insertion: Superior medial greater trochanter
   • Landmark: Superior gluteal vessels emerge ABOVE this muscle

2. Superior Gemellus

   • Origin: Ischial spine
   • Insertion: Greater trochanter (blends with obturator internus)

3. Obturator Internus

   • Origin: Obturator membrane and pelvis
   • Insertion: Greater trochanter (medial surface)
   • Note: Exits pelvis through lesser sciatic foramen

4. Inferior Gemellus

   • Origin: Ischial tuberosity
   • Insertion: Greater trochanter (blends with obturator internus)

5. Quadratus Femoris

   • Origin: Lateral ischial tuberosity
   • Insertion: Quadrate tubercle (intertrochanteric crest)
   • Relation: Medial circumflex femoral artery runs posterior

Release Strategy: All five muscles are tagged with sutures at their trochanteric insertions, then released from lateral to medial (piriformis → superior gemellus → obturator internus → inferior gemellus → quadratus femoris). This mobilizes the sciatic nerve posteriorly and allows safe retraction for acetabular exposure.

Between:

• Superior gluteal nerve (L4-L5-S1): Innervates gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, tensor fascia lata
• Inferior gluteal nerve (L5-S1-S2): Innervates gluteus maximus

Clinical Significance:

The internervous plane preserves motor function to all gluteal muscles. The gluteus maximus is split in line with its fibers (minimizes denervation), while the gluteus medius and minimus are retracted superiorly to expose the short external rotators. No muscles are transected across their nerve supply, making this a true internervous approach.

Boundaries:

• Superior: Gluteus medius and minimus (retracted superiorly with superior gluteal nerve)
• Inferior: Gluteus maximus (split along fiber direction, inferior gluteal nerve intact)
• Deep: Short external rotators overlying posterior acetabulum
• Superficial: Gluteal fascia and subcutaneous tissue

Key Advantage:

By working between two different nerve territories, the approach minimizes denervation and preserves hip abductor function (critical for gait). The only muscles released are the short external rotators, which are tagged and repaired anatomically at closure to restore external rotation strength.

Positioning Options

Prone Position (Standard):

Advantages:

• Gravity assists exposure by pulling soft tissues anteriorly
• Easier identification and protection of sciatic nerve
• Better visualization of posterior column orientation
• Allows simultaneous bilateral surgery if needed
• Surgeon stands at side of table (ergonomic)

Disadvantages:

• Cannot extend approach anteriorly if needed
• Difficult to assess hip stability intraoperatively
• Longer setup time for positioning

Lateral Decubitus Position (Alternative):

Advantages:

• Can extend to surgical hip dislocation if needed (trochanteric flip osteotomy)
• Easier to assess hip stability and range of motion
• Familiar position for hip surgeons
• Anterior ilioinguinal approach possible if required

Disadvantages:

• Soft tissues fall anteriorly, obscuring posterior exposure
• Sciatic nerve identification more difficult
• Requires pelvic positioners and careful padding

Positioning Technique (Prone)

1. General anesthesia with muscle relaxation (facilitates reduction)

2. Foley catheter placement (long procedure)

3. Position prone on radiolucent table or Jackson frame

4. Chest rolls: From clavicle to iliac crest, allowing abdominal expansion

5. Hip positioning: Slight hip extension (15-20°), neutral rotation

6. Knee: Flexed 30-45° (relaxes sciatic nerve)

7. Padding:

   • Face: Prone head pillow with cutouts for eyes, nose, mouth
   • Chest: Axillary rolls to protect brachial plexus
   • Abdomen: Free (no pressure on abdomen)
   • Anterior superior iliac spines: Padded
   • Genitalia: Protected (males)
   • Knees: Padded
   • Ankles and feet: Padded

8. Arms: Positioned on arm boards, less than 90° abduction

Imaging Setup

• C-arm fluoroscopy: AP, obturator oblique (45°), iliac oblique (45°)
• Inlet view: Assesses anterior/posterior displacement
• Outlet view: Assesses superior/inferior displacement
• Judet views: Essential for intraoperative reduction assessment

Skin Preparation

• Prep: Chlorhexidine 2% in alcohol from mid-thoracic spine to mid-thigh
• Draping: Wide draping to allow extension of incision if needed
• Adhesive drape: Over incision site

Wound Closure Technique

1. Short External Rotator Repair:

   • Re-approximate muscles to greater trochanter using tagged sutures
   • Start with quadratus femoris (most inferior), work proximally
   • Transosseous tunnels or suture anchors if bone quality poor
   • Goal: Restore external rotation strength and protect sciatic nerve

2. Gluteus Maximus:

   • Allow muscle to fall back together (fibers re-align)
   • Minimal sutures needed

3. Fascia:

   • Close fascia lata and gluteus maximus fascia with absorbable suture (0 Vicryl)

4. Subcutaneous and Skin:

   • Deep dermal sutures (2-0 Vicryl)
   • Skin: Staples or running subcuticular absorbable suture
   • Drain: Rarely needed (if significant oozing, place 1-2 drains)

Heterotopic Ossification Prophylaxis (MANDATORY)

Indomethacin:

• Dose: 75 mg daily (or 25 mg three times daily)
• Duration: 6 weeks
• Start: Within 24 hours of surgery
• Contraindications: Peptic ulcer, renal impairment, NSAID allergy

Radiation Therapy:

• Dose: 700-800 cGy single fraction
• Timing: Within 72 hours of surgery (ideally within 24h)
• Technique: External beam to surgical site
• Contraindications: Pregnancy, children

Choose ONE method (not both - no additional benefit, increased side effects).

DVT Prophylaxis

• Mechanical: TED stockings, pneumatic compression devices
• Chemical: Low molecular weight heparin (e.g., enoxaparin 40 mg daily)
  • Start 12-24 hours post-op if hemostasis secure
  • Continue until fully mobilized (minimum 10-14 days)
• Mobilization: Early mobilization reduces VTE risk

Weight-Bearing Protocol

• First 6 weeks: Toe-touch weight-bearing only (10-20 kg)
• 6-12 weeks: Progressive weight-bearing (if radiographic healing)
• 12 weeks: Full weight-bearing (if fracture healed)
• Exceptions:
  • Severe comminution: delay weight-bearing to 12 weeks
  • Both-column fractures: earlier mobilization (secondary congruence)

Rehabilitation

• ROM exercises: Start early (within 48 hours)
  • Hip flexion/extension, rotation
  • Avoid forced abduction initially (respect short external rotator repair)
• Strengthening: Begin at 6 weeks (isometric), progress to isotonic
• Gait training: Parallel bars → crutches → stick → independent
• Return to work: 3-6 months (sedentary work earlier)

Sciatic Nerve Injury

Incidence: 10-20% (transient palsy), 2-4% (permanent deficit)

Mechanism:

• Traction injury during retraction (most common)
• Direct trauma during dissection or screw placement
• Thermal injury from cautery
• Hematoma compression post-operatively

Prevention:

• Mobilize nerve by releasing all short external rotators
• Use blunt retractors (not sharp Hohmann under nerve)
• Minimize retraction time (periodic release)
• Avoid cautery near nerve (bipolar only if necessary)
• Correct screw placement (stay intra-osseous)

Management:

• Post-operative palsy: EMG/NCS at 3-4 weeks (distinguish neurapraxia from axonotmesis)
• Neurapraxia: Observe (80-90% recover in 3-6 months)
• Axonotmesis/neurotmesis: Consider exploration if complete palsy or no recovery at 3 months
• Foot drop: AFO (ankle-foot orthosis) for ambulation
• Expected recovery: Peroneal worse than tibial (peroneal rarely recovers if complete palsy)

Heterotopic Ossification

Incidence: 10-15% (without prophylaxis), 50% (with TBI), 3-5% (with prophylaxis)

Classification (Brooker):

• Grade I: Islands of bone in soft tissues
• Grade II: Bone spurs from pelvis or femur with gap greater than 1 cm
• Grade III: Bone spurs with gap less than 1 cm
• Grade IV: Ankylosis

Risk Factors:

• Traumatic brain injury (strongest predictor)
• Delay to surgery (greater than 2 weeks)
• Prolonged surgery (greater than 3 hours)
• Extensive soft tissue dissection
• Previous HO

Prevention:

• Indomethacin 75 mg daily × 6 weeks OR radiation 700 cGy (single dose)
• Start within 24 hours

Treatment:

• Observation if asymptomatic
• Excision if: Pain, restricted ROM (less than 90° flexion), difficulty with ADLs
• Timing of excision: Wait 12-18 months (mature bone on bone scan)
• Prophylaxis for excision: Radiation preferred (indomethacin has failed once)

Superior Gluteal Nerve Injury

Incidence: Less than 5%

Mechanism:

• Injury during piriformis release (vessels emerge ABOVE muscle)
• Excessive superior retraction

Clinical Presentation:

• Trendelenburg gait (gluteus medius/minimus paralysis)
• Positive Trendelenburg test

Management:

• No treatment available (nerve not repairable)
• Compensate with cane in contralateral hand
• Gluteus maximus transfer (Mustard procedure) for severe cases

Infection

Incidence: 2-5%

Prevention:

• Prophylactic antibiotics (cefazolin 2g pre-op, continue 24h)
• Meticulous hemostasis
• Layered closure
• Drain if significant oozing

Management:

• Superficial: Antibiotics, wound care
• Deep: Surgical debridement, retain hardware if stable, 6 weeks IV antibiotics

Post-traumatic Arthritis

Incidence: 20-30% (varies with fracture pattern and reduction quality)

Risk Factors:

• Inadequate reduction (greater than 2 mm displacement)
• Femoral head injury (impaction, AVN)
• Delay to surgery
• Age greater than 40 years

Management:

• Conservative initially: NSAIDs, weight loss, activity modification
• Arthroplasty when symptomatic (THA)
  • Timing: Wait minimum 1 year after fracture (allow soft tissue healing)
  • Challenges: Scar tissue, bone loss, heterotopic ossification