Foot & Ankle Orthopaedic Topics
Foot, ankle & lower leg conditions. 86 evidence-informed references covering conditions, classifications, management and high-yield exam notes for FRCS (Tr&Orth), FRACS, EBOT and ABOS preparation.
All Foot & Ankle topics (86)
- Accessory Soleus MuscleExam-focused guide to the accessory soleus: a common congenital variant of the deep posterior compartment that can present as a posteromedial ankle mass, exertional pain, or tarsal tunnel syndrome. Covers insertion classification, MRI diagnosis, when to operate, surgical technique principles, and how to avoid misdiagnosing it as a neoplasm.
- Achilles Tendon RuptureAcute Achilles tendon rupture diagnosis and management including Thompson test, operative vs non-operative treatment, and surgical repair techniques
- Adductor Hallucis AnatomySurgical anatomy of the adductor hallucis, its oblique and transverse heads, the conjoined tendon and lateral sesamoid, and its role as the deforming force in hallux valgus and the target of the modified McBride lateral release.
- Adult Acquired Flatfoot DeformityComprehensive guide to adult acquired flatfoot deformity (AAFD) with focus on posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (PTTD), Johnson and Strom classification, surgical reconstruction algorithms, and evidence-based management strategies for Orthopaedic examination preparation.
- Ankle Impingement SyndromesAnterior and posterior ankle impingement: aetiology, examination, imaging, diagnostic injection and arthroscopic management.
- Anterior Ankle ImpingementAnterior ankle impingement: aetiology, Scranton-McDermott grading, oblique AMI radiography, and arthroscopic debridement with outcomes stratified by joint space.
- Anterior Tibial Tendon RuptureAnterior tibial tendon rupture: why it is missed, the hypovascular zone, and the repair-versus-reconstruction decision with reported outcomes.
- Baxter NeuropathyComprehensive guide to entrapment of the inferior calcaneal nerve (first branch of the lateral plantar nerve), including clinical differentiation from plantar fasciitis, electrodiagnosis, imaging, and surgical decompression.
- Brachymetatarsia / Congenital Short MetatarsalFellowship-level guide to brachymetatarsia: a congenitally short metatarsal (most often the fourth, from premature physeal closure) that disrupts the metatarsal parabola and leaves the corresponding toe short and dorsally riding; the associations, the clinical and radiographic features, and the surgical lengthening options - one-stage interpositional bone graft versus gradual distraction osteogenesis (callotasis) - with their trade-offs.
- Bunionette Deformity (Tailor's Bunion)Comprehensive guide to bunionette deformity: lateral fifth metatarsal prominence, Coughlin classification (Types I-III), surgical decision-making for lateral condylectomy, chevron, and proximal osteotomies.
- Calcaneal FracturesComprehensive guide to calcaneal fractures: Sanders CT classification, ORIF via extensile lateral approach, management of wound complications
- Calcaneocuboid ArthritisComprehensive guide to calcaneocuboid arthritis covering pathophysiology, clinical assessment, conservative and surgical management for Orthopaedic exam preparation
- Cavovarus Foot DeformityComprehensive guide to cavovarus foot deformity including CMT etiology, Coleman block test, staged reconstruction, and outcomes
- Charcot NeuroarthropathyComprehensive guide to Charcot neuroarthropathy of the foot and ankle, including Eichenholtz staging, rocker-bottom deformity, total contact casting, and reconstruction versus amputation decision-making.
- Chronic Lateral Ankle PainPattern-based differential for chronic lateral ankle pain after sprain: instability, impingement, peroneal pathology, osteochondral lesions, coalition and occult fracture, with discriminators.
- Claw ToesComprehensive guide to claw toe deformity including biomechanics, neurological causes, flexible vs rigid classification, and surgical management strategies.
- Common, Superficial & Deep Peroneal (Fibular) Nerve AnatomyFellowship-level anatomy of the common peroneal (fibular) nerve and its superficial and deep branches: sciatic origin, the vulnerable course around the fibular neck, foot drop, and the compartments supplied.
- Congenital Cleft Foot & Overlapping/Underlapping Fifth ToeFellowship-level guide to two congenital forefoot conditions: cleft foot (split-foot malformation / ectrodactyly, 'lobster-claw') - a central-ray deficiency that may be isolated or part of a syndrome (e.g. EEC) needing genetic counselling and function-and-cosmesis-tailored surgery - and the overlapping (congenital overriding) and underlapping ('curly') fifth toe, most of which correct or settle with non-operative care, with surgery reserved for persistent symptomatic deformity.
- Crossover Toe DeformityComprehensive guide to crossover toe deformity - second toe plantar plate tear, dorsal subluxation mechanism, flexible vs rigid grading, and surgical flexor-extensor balancing techniques
- Deltoid Ligament InjuriesComprehensive review of deltoid ligament injuries including acute sprains, chronic insufficiency, grading systems, associated fractures, and evidence-based management strategies
- Diabetic Foot InfectionsSpectrum of soft tissue and bone infections in diabetic foot, from superficial cellulitis to limb-threatening deep space infections and osteomyelitis
- Diabetic Foot ManagementComprehensive guide to diabetic foot ulcer classification (Wagner, Texas), infection management, amputation indications, and multidisciplinary care
- Diabetic Foot UlcersComprehensive guide to diabetic foot ulcer pathophysiology, Wagner and University of Texas classifications, assessment, offloading, wound care, surgical management, and prevention strategies
- Diabetic NeuropathyComprehensive guide to diabetic peripheral neuropathy affecting the foot and ankle, including pathophysiology, monofilament screening, Charcot arthropathy, ulcer prevention, and multidisciplinary management for orthopaedic fellowship exams
- Extensor Tendon Injuries - Foot and AnkleComprehensive guide to extensor tendon injuries of the foot - anatomy, mechanism, acute and chronic management, surgical repair techniques, and rehabilitation for orthopaedic exam
- Flexor Digitorum Brevis AnatomySurgical anatomy of the flexor digitorum brevis, its origin from the medial calcaneal tuberosity and plantar aponeurosis, the tendon chiasma, and its role in plantar fasciitis and Baxter nerve entrapment.
- Flexor Digitorum Longus AnatomySurgical anatomy of flexor digitorum longus: the knot of Henry and its interconnections with flexor hallucis longus, FDL transfer for stage II posterior tibial tendon dysfunction, quadratus plantae and the lumbricals, and its role in lesser toe deformity and flexor tenotomy.
- Flexor Hallucis Brevis AnatomySurgical anatomy of the flexor hallucis brevis, the two hallux sesamoids embedded in its tendons, the plantar plate and sesamoid complex, and its relevance to turf toe, sesamoid fracture versus bipartite sesamoid, and hallux rigidus.
- Flexor Hallucis Longus (FHL) TendinitisComprehensive guide to FHL tendinitis including anatomy, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management strategies
- Flexor Hallucis Longus AnatomySurgical anatomy of flexor hallucis longus: the fibro-osseous tunnel behind the talus, posterior ankle impingement and the os trigonum, FHL transfer for chronic Achilles rupture with harvest levels and the medial plantar nerve at risk, hallux saltans, checkrein deformity and the knot of Henry.
- Foot & Ankle Orthotics, Bracing and AFOsFellowship-level guide to foot and ankle orthoses: foot orthoses/insoles for support and offloading, the spectrum of ankle-foot orthoses (AFOs) - posterior leaf spring, solid/rigid, hinged, and ground-reaction (floor-reaction) designs - and specialised devices such as the Arizona/gauntlet AFO and the CROW boot for Charcot; the indications matched to the deficit (flexible foot drop, fixed deformity, quadriceps weakness, hindfoot/ankle arthritis, Charcot), and the biomechanical principles.
- Foot Puncture WoundsFellowship-level guide to plantar foot puncture wounds: the small but important proportion that develop deep infection and osteomyelitis, the classic Pseudomonas aeruginosa association with punctures through rubber-soled footwear, the role of imaging for retained foreign bodies, tetanus prophylaxis, and the principles of wound care, debridement and culture-directed antibiotics.
- Freiberg Disease (Freiberg Infraction)Comprehensive guide to Freiberg disease osteochondrosis - diagnosis, staging and management
- Gastrocnemius (Equinus) Contracture & the Silfverskiöld TestFellowship-level guide to isolated gastrocnemius contracture: the Silfverskiöld test, why a tight gastrocnemius overloads the forefoot, and gastrocnemius recession versus Achilles lengthening.
- Haglund Syndrome and Insertional Achilles TendinopathyComprehensive guide to posterosuperior calcaneal prominence with retrocalcaneal bursitis and insertional Achilles tendinopathy, covering pump bump, eccentric loading, calcaneal ostectomy, and tendon reattachment.
- Hallux RigidusComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to hallux rigidus: classification, grading systems, treatment algorithms comparing cheilectomy vs arthrodesis vs arthroplasty, and surgical decision-making.
- Hallux ValgusBunion deformity with lateral deviation of hallux and medial prominence of first metatarsal head. Comprehensive coverage of assessment, osteotomy selection (chevron, scarf, Lapidus), surgical technique, and complications.
- Hallux VarusComprehensive guide to hallux varus - definition, etiology, flexible vs rigid deformity, conservative and surgical management including EHL transfer and arthrodesis for orthopaedic exam
- Hammer ToesComprehensive guide to hammer toe deformity including classification, flexible vs rigid, surgical correction techniques, and outcomes.
- Interphalangeal Joint Arthritis (Foot)Comprehensive guide to hallux IPJ and lesser toe IPJ arthritis - post-traumatic and degenerative causes, conservative vs arthrodesis surgical approach for exam
- Keller Resection ArthroplastyFellowship-level guide to the Keller resection arthroplasty of the first metatarsophalangeal joint: excision of the base of the proximal phalanx of the hallux to decompress an arthritic or deformed first MTP joint; its modern niche in the low-demand elderly patient with hallux valgus or hallux rigidus, the trade-off of losing hallux push-off (transfer metatarsalgia, cock-up and flail-toe deformities), and first-MTP arthrodesis as the salvage for a failed Keller.
- Keratotic Disorders of the Plantar Skin (Corns, Calluses, IPK)Fellowship-level guide to plantar hyperkeratoses: callus (tyloma), hard and soft corns (heloma durum/molle) and the intractable plantar keratosis (IPK) under a metatarsal head - their pressure-related pathogenesis, the key differentiation from a plantar wart (verruca), conservative offloading/debridement, the diabetic pre-ulcer significance, and surgery (condylectomy/metatarsal osteotomy) with the risk of transfer lesions.
- Lateral Ankle InstabilityComprehensive guide to lateral ankle instability including ATFL/CFL anatomy, examination techniques, Brostrom-Gould repair, and anatomic reconstruction options for Orthopaedic examination.
- Lesser MTP Joint ArthritisComprehensive review of lesser metatarsophalangeal joint arthritis including pathoanatomy, clinical assessment, conservative and surgical management strategies
- Lesser Toe DeformitiesComprehensive guide to hammer toe, claw toe, and mallet toe: classification, pathomechanics, non-operative management, and surgical correction techniques for Orthopaedic exam
- Lisfranc InjuriesComprehensive guide to Lisfranc (tarsometatarsal) injuries including Myerson classification, subtle diagnosis (fleck sign), and treatment from ORIF to primary arthrodesis
- Meary Angle (Talo-First Metatarsal Angle)The Meary angle — the lateral talus-first metatarsal axis measurement for sagittal-plane foot alignment. Normal is approximately zero degrees; apex-plantar in pes planus, apex-dorsal in pes cavus. How to measure, interpret, and act on it.
- Medial Ankle InstabilityDeltoid ligament insufficiency causing medial ankle instability, including anatomy, diagnosis, conservative and surgical management of this uncommon but significant ankle pathology
- MetatarsalgiaComprehensive guide to forefoot pain including primary and secondary causes, biomechanics, examination with drawer test, conservative orthotics management, Weil osteotomy surgical technique, and transfer metatarsalgia prevention
- Midfoot ArthritisComprehensive guide to midfoot arthritis diagnosis and management
- Morton's NeuromaComprehensive guide to Morton's neuroma including pathophysiology, Mulder's click, conservative management, corticosteroid injection, and surgical neurectomy.
- Müller-Weiss DiseaseSpontaneous adult-onset tarsal navicular dysplasia/osteonecrosis producing the paradoxical pes planovarus deformity; diagnosis, Maceira staging and fusion-based management.
- Navicular Stress FractureComprehensive guide to tarsal navicular stress fractures in athletes, including watershed-zone biology, diagnosis with MRI/CT, classification, and evidence-based management with non-weight-bearing immobilisation or internal fixation.
- Onychocryptosis (Ingrown Toenail) and Toenail DisordersFellowship-level guide to onychocryptosis (ingrown toenail): pathogenesis and risk factors, the Heifetz/Mozena staging, conservative measures, and the evidence that partial nail avulsion with chemical (phenol) matricectomy gives the lowest recurrence - with a note on related toenail disorders (onychomycosis, onychogryphosis, subungual exostosis).
- Osteochondral Lesion of the TalusComplete exam guide to osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) - aetiology, location, Berndt-Harty and Hepple classification, MRI/CT staging, microfracture, OAT and ACI, the lesion-size decision, and complications for orthopaedic exams
- Painful Accessory Ossicles of the Foot (Os Peroneum & Os Vesalianum)Fellowship-level guide to the painful accessory ossicles of the foot - chiefly the painful os peroneum syndrome (a spectrum of lateral-foot pain from an os peroneum within the peroneus longus tendon, where a fractured or diastatic ossicle may signal a peroneus longus tear) and the os vesalianum at the fifth metatarsal base - with how to distinguish them from an avulsion fracture, the role of comparison views/MRI, and a non-operative-first management approach (os trigonum and accessory navicular have their own pages).
- Peroneal Tendon DisordersComprehensive guide to peroneal tendon pathology including tears, subluxation, and SPR repair - covering anatomy, classification, surgical techniques, and rehabilitation
- Peroneal Tendon Subluxation and DislocationComprehensive guide to peroneal tendon instability, superior peroneal retinaculum tears, and surgical repair techniques
- Peroneal Tendon TearsComprehensive guide to peroneal tendon tears - anatomy, Sobel classification, tubular vs split tears, debridement vs reconstruction techniques, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
- Peroneus Brevis AnatomySurgical anatomy of peroneus brevis: the fifth metatarsal base insertion and its role in Jones and avulsion fractures, longitudinal split tears in the fibular groove, superior peroneal retinaculum repair and groove deepening, and harvest for lateral ankle ligament reconstruction.
- Peroneus Longus AnatomySurgical anatomy of peroneus longus: the lateral compartment and superficial peroneal nerve, the cuboid tunnel and os peroneum, plantarflexion of the first ray as the driver of cavovarus, the Coleman block test, and peroneal tendon pathology.
- Peroneus Tertius AnatomySurgical anatomy of peroneus tertius: an anterior compartment muscle despite its name, deep peroneal innervation, variable presence across populations, and its contribution to dorsiflexion and eversion.
- Plantar Fasciitis ManagementComprehensive guide to plantar fasciitis - anatomy, pathophysiology, diagnosis, conservative management, injection therapies, surgical techniques, and evidence-based treatment for orthopaedic exam
- Plantar Fibromatosis (Ledderhose Disease)Comprehensive guide to plantar fibromatosis (Ledderhose disease), including pathophysiology, Dupuytren association, high recurrence after excision, and treatment algorithms.
- Plantar Interossei AnatomySurgical anatomy of the three plantar interossei, adduction of the lesser toes about the second ray axis, lateral plantar nerve innervation, and the intrinsic-minus foot with claw toes in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and diabetic neuropathy.
- Plantar Plate Insufficiency & Lesser MTP InstabilityFellowship-level guide to plantar plate degeneration and tear at the lesser metatarsophalangeal joints: the cause of second-toe crossover deformity, the drawer test, distinguishing it from Morton's neuroma, and direct repair.
- Posterior Ankle ImpingementComprehensive guide to posterior ankle impingement and os trigonum syndrome
- Quadratus Plantae AnatomySurgical anatomy of quadratus plantae (flexor accessorius), how it corrects the oblique pull of flexor digitorum longus, its role in lesser toe deformity, and its relationship to the Baxter nerve and the calcaneal compartment.
- Retrocalcaneal BursitisInflammation of the retrocalcaneal bursa between the Achilles tendon and calcaneus, commonly seen in athletes and associated with Haglund's deformity
- Sesamoid Disorders of the FootComprehensive guide to hallucal sesamoid pathology: sesamoiditis, fractures, bipartite variants, AVN, arthritis. Classification, imaging differentiation, and surgical decision-making including sesamoidectomy.
- Sinus Tarsi SyndromeComprehensive guide to sinus tarsi syndrome - anatomy, post-traumatic aetiology, clinical diagnosis, imaging, conservative management, and surgical debridement.
- Soft-Tissue Mass of the FootPattern and differential for a soft-tissue mass in the foot: discriminators separating ganglion, plantar fibroma, Morton's neuroma, synovial sarcoma and vascular malformation.
- Soleus AnatomySurgical anatomy of soleus: the soleal arch as a site of popliteal artery and tibial nerve entrapment, the dominant plantarflexor in stance, the Silfverskiold distinction from gastrocnemius, the soleus flap for middle-third tibial cover, and the calf muscle pump.
- Spring Ligament InsufficiencyComprehensive guide to plantar calcaneonavicular (spring) ligament pathology, assessment, and surgical reconstruction in adult flatfoot deformity
- Subtalar ArthritisDegenerative arthritis of the subtalar joint causing hindfoot pain, loss of inversion/eversion, and altered gait mechanics
- Subungual Exostosis & Subungual TumoursFellowship-level guide to the subungual exostosis (Dupuytren's exostosis) - a benign fibrocartilage-capped bony outgrowth from the dorsal distal phalanx, usually of the great toe in adolescents/young adults that elevates and deforms the nail - and the wider differential of subungual tumours (glomus tumour, osteochondroma, and the must-not-miss subungual melanoma); the radiographic diagnosis, marginal excision and the importance of excluding malignancy.
- Superficial Peroneal Nerve AnatomySurgical anatomy of the superficial peroneal (superficial fibular) nerve: the lateral compartment, its fascial exit 10 to 12 cm above the lateral malleolus, fasciotomy and ankle arthroscopy portal safety, and its sensory border with the sural nerve.
- Syndesmotic InstabilityComprehensive guide to syndesmotic instability - high ankle sprains, anatomy of AITFL/PITFL/IOL, West Point and Lauge-Hansen classification, clinical tests, radiographic assessment, and fixation options for orthopaedic exam
- Talonavicular ArthritisComprehensive guide to talonavicular arthritis covering pathophysiology, clinical assessment, conservative and surgical management, and outcomes for Orthopaedic exam preparation
- Talus FracturesComprehensive guide to talus fractures including Hawkins classification, AVN risk stratification, urgent reduction techniques, and surgical approaches for this challenging injury with critical blood supply implications
- Tarsal Tunnel SyndromeComprehensive guide to tarsal tunnel syndrome including anatomy, diagnosis, provocative tests, electrodiagnostic studies, and surgical decompression techniques.
- Tarsometatarsal (TMT) ArthritisComprehensive guide to TMT joint arthritis: clinical presentation, conservative and surgical management strategies
- The Rheumatoid Foot and AnkleComprehensive guide to the spectrum of forefoot, midfoot, hindfoot and ankle involvement in rheumatoid arthritis, with surgical reconstruction principles including Fowler excision arthroplasty, first MTP arthrodesis and triple arthrodesis.
- Tibial Nerve AnatomyFellowship-level anatomy of the tibial nerve: sciatic origin, popliteal fossa and posterior-leg course, the tarsal tunnel, medial and lateral plantar nerves, and injury patterns including the insensate sole.
- Tibialis Anterior AnatomySurgical anatomy of tibialis anterior: deep peroneal innervation, the anterior compartment, foot drop and steppage gait, missed tendon rupture in the older patient, and split anterior tibial tendon transfer.
- Tibialis Posterior AnatomySurgical anatomy of tibialis posterior: the deepest posterior compartment muscle, its broad navicular and plantar insertion, dynamic arch support, PTTD staging, the tarsal tunnel, and FDL transfer with medial displacement calcaneal osteotomy.