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  5. Spine

Spine Orthopaedic Topics

Cervical, thoracic & lumbar spine. 83 evidence-informed references covering conditions, classifications, management and high-yield exam notes for FRCS (Tr&Orth), FRACS, EBOT and ABOS preparation.

Browse & filter all Spine topics interactively →Exam tracks

All Spine topics (83)

  • ACDF - Anterior Cervical Discectomy and FusionComprehensive guide to anterior cervical discectomy and fusion including indications, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes for Orthopaedic examination
  • Adjacent Segment DiseaseComprehensive guide to adjacent segment disease after spinal fusion including pathophysiology, risk factors, prevention, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination
  • Adult Spinal DeformityComprehensive guide to adult spinal deformity including SRS-Schwab classification, sagittal balance parameters, surgical planning, osteotomies, and outcomes for orthopaedic exam
  • Anderson-Montesano Classification of Occipital Condyle FracturesThe Anderson-Montesano system for classifying occipital condyle fractures — Types I, II, and III, CT diagnosis, stability assessment, and management of this easily missed upper cervical injury.
  • Ankylosing SpondylitisComprehensive guide to ankylosing spondylitis - inflammatory spondyloarthropathy, HLA-B27 association, spinal manifestations, fracture management, and orthopaedic considerations for fellowship exam preparation
  • AO Spine Thoracolumbar Injury Classification SystemThe AO Spine TLICS — the three morphologic types (A compression, B tension-band, C translation), neurologic status, and clinical modifiers that together guide operative decision-making for thoracolumbar trauma.
  • ASIA Impairment Scale (Frankel Scale)The ASIA Impairment Scale (AIS) — the international standard for grading completeness of spinal cord injury from A (complete) to E (normal) — key muscle groups, sensory dermatomes, sacral sparing, and how to apply it in the exam.
  • Atlanto-Occipital DislocationComprehensive guide to atlanto-occipital dislocation including Traynelis classification, radiographic measurements (Powers ratio, CCI, BDI), immediate management, and occipitocervical fusion.
  • Atlantoaxial ArthritisDegenerative or inflammatory arthritis of the C1-C2 articulation causing occipitocervical pain and potential instability
  • Atlantoaxial Rotatory SubluxationComprehensive exam guide to atlantoaxial rotatory subluxation and fixation (AARS/AARF) - cock-robin torticollis, Grisel syndrome, Fielding-Hawkins and Pang classifications, dynamic CT diagnosis, traction reduction and C1-C2 fusion for orthopaedic exam
  • Baastrup Disease (Kissing Spine Syndrome)Comprehensive guide to Baastrup disease - diagnosis, imaging features, pathophysiology, and management of kissing spine syndrome for FRACS exam
  • Basilar InvaginationComprehensive guide to basilar invagination and basilar impression: cranial migration of the odontoid process into the foramen magnum, congenital and acquired aetiologies, radiographic lines, myelopathic presentation, and occipitocervical fusion.
  • Bertolotti Syndrome (Lumbosacral Transitional Vertebra)Comprehensive guide to Bertolotti syndrome - Castellvi classification, diagnosis, and management of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae for FRACS exam
  • Brucellosis of the Spine (Spinal Brucellosis)Comprehensive guide to spinal brucellosis - endemic zoonosis causing spondylodiscitis, Pedro Pons sign, diagnosis with serology, prolonged antibiotic treatment for orthopaedic exam
  • Cauda Equina SyndromeComprehensive guide to cauda equina syndrome for FRCS examination
  • Cervical Disc Arthroplasty (CDA)Comprehensive guide to cervical disc replacement for radiculopathy and myelopathy - patient selection, FDA-approved devices, surgical technique, outcomes vs ACDF, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
  • Cervical Disc DiseaseComprehensive exam-ready guide to cervical radiculopathy and disc herniation - diagnosis and management
  • Cervical Facet ArthropathyComprehensive guide to Cervical Facet Joint Syndrome, diagnosis via Medial Branch Blocks, and Radiofrequency Ablation.
  • Cervical InstabilityComprehensive guide to cervical instability including atlantoaxial instability, occipitoatlantal dislocation, subaxial instability, and surgical stabilization techniques.
  • Cervical MyelopathyComprehensive guide to cervical myelopathy - cord compression, upper motor neuron signs, Nurick classification, surgical timing, anterior vs posterior approaches, and clinical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
  • Cervical RadiculopathyComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to cervical radiculopathy - nerve root compression syndromes, dermatomal patterns, examination findings, imaging interpretation, conservative management, and surgical techniques including ACDF and posterior foraminotomy.
  • Cervical SpondylolisthesisComprehensive guide to cervical vertebral subluxation including degenerative, traumatic, and iatrogenic causes, with classification and fusion techniques.
  • Cervical SpondylosisComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to cervical spondylosis - degenerative disc disease, osteophyte formation, natural history, clinical presentation, imaging interpretation, and management strategies for age-related cervical spine degeneration.
  • Chiari Malformation (Orthopaedic Relevance)Exam-focused guide to Chiari I malformation for the orthopaedic surgeon: what it is, why the cerebellar tonsils matter for the spine, the syringomyelia link that drives atypical scoliosis and neuropathic (Charcot) joints, when to MRI the whole spine in scoliosis, the role of posterior fossa decompression before fusion, and the red flags you must not miss.
  • CoccydyniaComprehensive guide to coccygeal pain including aetiology, dynamic radiographic assessment, injection therapy, and coccygectomy for refractory cases.
  • Conus Medullaris SyndromeComprehensive guide to conus medullaris syndrome: L1-L2 cord-tip lesion, early symmetric saddle anaesthesia, mixed UMN/LMN signs, and acute sphincter dysfunction.
  • Degenerative Disc DiseaseComprehensive guide to lumbar degenerative disc disease including diagnosis, conservative management, and surgical options.
  • Degenerative SpondylolisthesisComprehensive guide to degenerative spondylolisthesis: pathophysiology, classification, and management.
  • Denis Three-Column Classification of Spinal FracturesThe Denis three-column concept for thoracolumbar spine injuries — anterior, middle, and posterior columns; middle-column integrity as the arbiter of stability; and the four fracture patterns it defines.
  • Dermatomes, Myotomes & Spinal Nerve Root AnatomyFellowship-level guide to dermatomes and myotomes: the ISNCSCI key sensory points and key muscles, reflex levels, radiculopathy localisation, and the ASIA examination.
  • Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH)Exam-focused guide to DISH (Forestier's disease): flowing anterior ossification, the Resnick criteria, the dangerous ankylosed-spine fracture, dysphagia, and how DISH differs from ankylosing spondylitis.
  • Discogenic Back PainComprehensive guide to discogenic back pain - pathophysiology, diagnosis, conservative and interventional management including disc decompression and fusion surgery
  • Dropped Head SyndromeComprehensive guide to dropped head syndrome - diagnosis, classification, pathophysiology, and surgical management of cervical extensor weakness for FRACS exam
  • Facet ArthropathyComprehensive guide to lumbar facet joint osteoarthritis, including biomechanics, clinical presentation, diagnostic criteria, and treatment options from conservative management to surgical fusion.
  • Failed Back Surgery SyndromeComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) - definition, etiology including wrong level surgery and inadequate decompression, evaluation algorithm, scar tissue vs recurrent disc herniation, pain management, spinal cord stimulation, revision surgery indications, and prevention strategies.
  • Flatback SyndromeComprehensive FRACS exam guide to flatback syndrome - loss of lumbar lordosis, sagittal imbalance, pathophysiology, radiographic assessment (SVA, PI-LL mismatch), conservative management, and surgical correction with Smith-Petersen, PSO, and VCR osteotomies.
  • Fungal Spine InfectionsComprehensive guide to diagnosis and management of fungal spondylodiscitis including Aspergillus, Candida, and endemic mycoses
  • Hangman's FractureTraumatic spondylolisthesis of the axis (C2) - comprehensive guide covering mechanism, Levine-Edwards classification, stability assessment, and management for Orthopaedic examination
  • Intradural Extramedullary TumorsComprehensive guide to intradural extramedullary spinal tumors including schwannoma, meningioma, and neurofibroma - diagnosis, MRI features, and surgical management for FRACS exam
  • Intramedullary Spinal TumorsComprehensive guide to intramedullary spinal cord tumors including ependymoma, astrocytoma, and hemangioblastoma with surgical management for FRACS examination
  • Isthmic SpondylolisthesisComprehensive guide to isthmic spondylolisthesis - pars defect, Wiltse classification, Meyerding grading, and management for FRACS exam
  • Jefferson FractureBurst fracture of the C1 ring from axial loading - comprehensive guide covering biomechanics, classification, stability assessment, and management strategies for Orthopaedic examination
  • Levine-Edwards Classification of Hangman FracturesThe Levine-Edwards system for traumatic C2 spondylolisthesis (hangman fracture) — the four types by displacement, angulation and facet behaviour, and the management rule for each.
  • Lumbar Disc Arthroplasty (Total Disc Replacement)Comprehensive guide to lumbar total disc replacement - indications, contraindications, implant designs, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes for FRCS exam preparation
  • Lumbar Disc HerniationComprehensive guide to lumbar disc herniation - epidemiology, disc anatomy, herniation types, radiculopathy, conservative vs surgical management, microdiscectomy technique, and recurrence prevention
  • Lumbar Fusion TechniquesComprehensive guide to lumbar fusion approaches - PLIF, TLIF, ALIF, lateral interbody fusion - indications, techniques, outcomes, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
  • Lumbar InstabilityComprehensive guide to lumbar instability, including White and Panjabi criteria, radiographic assessment, clinical correlation, and fusion indications
  • Lumbar LaminectomyComprehensive guide to lumbar laminectomy for spinal stenosis - patient selection, surgical technique, with or without fusion decision, outcomes, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
  • Lumbar MicrodiscectomyComprehensive guide to lumbar microdiscectomy for disc herniation - patient selection, surgical technique, outcomes, recurrence, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
  • Lumbar RadiculopathyComprehensive guide to lumbar radiculopathy - nerve root patterns, dermatomal distributions, diagnosis, and management for FRACS exam
  • Lumbar Spinal StenosisComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to lumbar spinal stenosis - pathophysiology, neurogenic claudication, clinical assessment, imaging interpretation, conservative management, and surgical techniques including laminectomy, laminoplasty, and interspinous process devices.
  • Lumbosacral Plexus AnatomyDetailed anatomy of the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, their branches, relations to Psoas/Piriformis, and clinical implications.
  • Metastatic Spine DiseaseComprehensive guide to metastatic spine disease including SINS classification, NOMS framework, Bilsky grading, surgical indications, and management for FRACS exam
  • Multiple Myeloma of the SpineComprehensive guide to multiple myeloma spinal involvement including diagnosis, imaging criteria, IMWG guidelines, and orthopaedic management for FRACS exam
  • Nerve Sheath Tumors of the SpineComprehensive guide to schwannomas and neurofibromas of the spine including diagnosis, surgical resection techniques, and management of neurofibromatosis for FRACS examination
  • Nurick Grading of Cervical Spondylotic MyelopathyThe Nurick classification for cervical spondylotic myelopathy — grades 0 to 5 by gait and ambulation, how to apply it at the bedside, its role in surgical decision-making, and its limitations compared with modern outcome scales.
  • OALL / DISH (Cervical Hyperostosis)Comprehensive guide to OALL and DISH, focusing on dysphagia management and anterior osteophytectomy.
  • OPLL (Ossification of Posterior Longitudinal Ligament)Detailed guide to cervical OPLL, including K-Line classification and surgical decision making.
  • Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament (OPLL)Comprehensive guide to OPLL causing cervical canal stenosis and myelopathy, covering epidemiology, CT classification (K-line), dural ossification risk, and anterior versus posterior surgical decompression.
  • Paraspinal AbscessComprehensive guide to paraspinal abscess including diagnosis, management, and surgical drainage techniques for FRACS examination preparation
  • Posterior Vertebral Apophyseal Ring FractureAdolescent posterior limbus/apophyseal ring avulsion of the lumbar vertebral body, mimicking disc herniation, with CT diagnosis and surgical excision of the fragment and associated disc.
  • Primary Bone Tumors of the SpineComprehensive guide to primary malignant spine tumors including chordoma, chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma - diagnosis, imaging, staging and surgical management for FRACS exam
  • Proximal Junctional Kyphosis (PJK)Comprehensive guide to proximal junctional kyphosis including definition, classification, risk factors, prevention strategies, and management for orthopaedic fellowship exam
  • Pseudarthrosis of the SpineComprehensive guide to spinal pseudarthrosis: risk factors, diagnosis with CT imaging, prevention strategies, and revision surgery principles for FRACS exam preparation
  • Pyogenic Discitis & OsteomyelitisComprehensive guide to spinal infection, focusing on diagnosis (MRI, Biopsy) and antimicrobial management.
  • Ranawat Classification of Cervical Myelopathy in Rheumatoid ArthritisThe Ranawat classification for grading cervical myelopathy in rheumatoid arthritis — four classes from pain-only to non-ambulatory, and their prognostic implications for surgical recovery.
  • Revision Deformity SurgeryComprehensive guide to revision surgery for failed adult spinal deformity correction, including etiology, assessment, complex surgical techniques, and complication management for this challenging patient population.
  • Rod Fractures in Spinal InstrumentationComprehensive guide to rod fractures following spinal fusion surgery, including risk factors, biomechanical principles, diagnosis, and management strategies for this significant complication.
  • Sacroiliac Joint DysfunctionComprehensive guide to SI joint dysfunction diagnosis and management for FRCS exam preparation
  • Sagittal Balance ParametersComprehensive guide to spinopelvic sagittal balance parameters including pelvic incidence, sacral slope, pelvic tilt, SVA, lumbar lordosis, and their clinical applications for orthopaedic fellowship exam
  • Spinal Epidural AbscessA surgical emergency covering the diagnosis (Classic Triad) and management of spinal epidural abscess.
  • Spinal Epidural AbscessComprehensive guide to spinal epidural abscess including the diagnostic triad, risk factors, urgent MRI evaluation, and emergent surgical decompression plus antibiotics.
  • Spinal Instability Neoplastic Score (SINS)Comprehensive guide to the SINS classification for spine metastasis instability assessment - scoring components, clinical application, and surgical decision-making for FRACS exam
  • Spinal Tuberculosis (Pott's Disease)Comprehensive guide to spinal tuberculosis including diagnosis, imaging, medical and surgical management, and outcomes for orthopaedic fellowship exam
  • Spinopelvic ParametersComprehensive guide to spinopelvic parameters - pelvic incidence, lumbar lordosis, sagittal vertical axis, and their role in spinal alignment, deformity correction, and total hip arthroplasty stability.
  • Split Cord Malformation (Diastematomyelia)Comprehensive guide to split cord malformation including Pang classification, tethered cord association, cutaneous markers, congenital scoliosis links, and mandatory MRI evaluation before deformity correction.
  • SpondylolisthesisComprehensive exam-ready guide to spondylolisthesis - classification, assessment, and surgical management
  • Synovial Cysts (Spine)Comprehensive guide to Lumbar Synovial Cysts, including pathophysiology, MRI appearance, and the surgical management debate (Decompression vs Fusion).
  • SyringomyeliaComprehensive guide to syringomyelia and its orthopaedic manifestations, including cape-distribution dissociated sensory loss, Charcot joints, and syrinx-associated scoliosis.
  • Thoracic Disc HerniationComprehensive evidence-based guide to thoracic disc herniation - rare pathology, myelopathy risk, surgical approach selection, and outcomes for FRACS orthopaedic exam preparation
  • Three-Column OsteotomiesComprehensive guide to three-column osteotomies including pedicle subtraction osteotomy and vertebral column resection for complex spinal deformity correction
  • Torg-Pavlov Ratio for Cervical StenosisThe canal-to-vertebral-body ratio for detecting cervical spinal stenosis on lateral radiographs — its measurement, thresholds, limitations in athletes, and its role in transient quadriparesis risk stratification.
  • Vertebroplasty and KyphoplastyComprehensive guide to vertebral augmentation (vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty) for vertebral compression fractures - indications, technique, outcomes, complications, and the sham-controlled vs open-label trial evidence (Kallmes, Buchbinder, VAPOUR, VERTOS, FREE) for orthopaedic exam preparation

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