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Spine Orthopaedic Topics

Cervical, thoracic & lumbar spine. 86 evidence-informed references covering conditions, classifications, management and high-yield exam notes for FRCS (Tr&Orth), FRACS, EBOT and ABOS preparation.

Browse & filter all Spine topics interactively →Exam tracks

All Spine topics (86)

  • ACDF - Anterior Cervical Discectomy and FusionComprehensive guide to anterior cervical discectomy and fusion including indications, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes for Orthopaedic examination
  • Adjacent Segment DiseaseComprehensive guide to adjacent segment disease after spinal fusion including pathophysiology, risk factors, prevention, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination
  • Adult Spinal DeformityComprehensive guide to adult spinal deformity including SRS-Schwab classification, sagittal balance parameters, surgical planning, osteotomies, and outcomes for orthopaedic exam
  • Ankylosing SpondylitisComprehensive guide to ankylosing spondylitis - inflammatory spondyloarthropathy, HLA-B27 association, spinal manifestations, fracture management, and orthopaedic considerations for fellowship exam preparation
  • Atlanto-Occipital DislocationComprehensive guide to atlanto-occipital dislocation including Traynelis classification, radiographic measurements (Powers ratio, CCI, BDI), immediate management, and occipitocervical fusion.
  • Atlantoaxial (C1-C2) FusionIndications, vertebral artery anatomy, and technique comparison for C1-C2 fusion: Gallie, Brooks, Magerl transarticular screws and the Goel-Harms construct.
  • Atlantoaxial ArthritisDegenerative or inflammatory arthritis of the C1-C2 articulation causing occipitocervical pain and potential instability
  • Atlantoaxial Rotatory SubluxationComprehensive exam guide to atlantoaxial rotatory subluxation and fixation (AARS/AARF) - cock-robin torticollis, Grisel syndrome, Fielding-Hawkins and Pang classifications, dynamic CT diagnosis, traction reduction and C1-C2 fusion for orthopaedic exam
  • Baastrup Disease (Kissing Spine Syndrome)Comprehensive guide to Baastrup disease - diagnosis, imaging features, pathophysiology, and management of kissing spine syndrome for FRACS exam
  • Basilar InvaginationComprehensive guide to basilar invagination and basilar impression: cranial migration of the odontoid process into the foramen magnum, congenital and acquired aetiologies, radiographic lines, myelopathic presentation, and occipitocervical fusion.
  • Bertolotti Syndrome (Lumbosacral Transitional Vertebra)Comprehensive guide to Bertolotti syndrome - Castellvi classification, diagnosis, and management of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae for FRACS exam
  • Blood Loss Management in Spine SurgeryFellowship-level guide to patient blood management in spine surgery: why spine (especially deformity) surgery causes high blood loss and the highest transfusion rates in orthopaedics, and the evidence-based multimodal strategy across the preoperative (anaemia/iron optimisation), intraoperative (tranexamic acid, hypotensive anaesthesia, prone positioning, haemostasis, cell salvage, staging) and postoperative (restrictive transfusion) phases.
  • Brucellosis of the Spine (Spinal Brucellosis)Comprehensive guide to spinal brucellosis - endemic zoonosis causing spondylodiscitis, Pedro Pons sign, diagnosis with serology, prolonged antibiotic treatment for orthopaedic exam
  • Cauda Equina SyndromeComprehensive guide to cauda equina syndrome for FRCS examination
  • Cervical Disc DiseaseComprehensive exam-ready guide to cervical radiculopathy and disc herniation - diagnosis and management
  • Cervical Facet ArthropathyComprehensive guide to Cervical Facet Joint Syndrome, diagnosis via Medial Branch Blocks, and Radiofrequency Ablation.
  • Cervical InstabilityComprehensive guide to cervical instability including atlantoaxial instability, occipitoatlantal dislocation, subaxial instability, and surgical stabilization techniques.
  • Cervical Lateral Mass Fracture-Separation (Floating Lateral Mass)Fellowship-level guide to the floating lateral mass (FLM) fracture of the subaxial cervical spine: a fracture through both the ipsilateral lamina and pedicle that disconnects the lateral mass (and its superior and inferior articular processes) from the vertebra, producing a highly unstable, often rotationally malaligned segment; its recognition on CT, the risk of blunt cerebrovascular (vertebral artery) injury, and operative versus selected non-operative management.
  • Cervical MyelopathyComprehensive guide to cervical myelopathy - cord compression, upper motor neuron signs, Nurick classification, surgical timing, anterior vs posterior approaches, and clinical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
  • Cervical RadiculopathyComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to cervical radiculopathy - nerve root compression syndromes, dermatomal patterns, examination findings, imaging interpretation, conservative management, and surgical techniques including ACDF and posterior foraminotomy.
  • Cervical SpondylolisthesisComprehensive guide to cervical vertebral subluxation including degenerative, traumatic, and iatrogenic causes, with classification and fusion techniques.
  • Cervical SpondylosisComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to cervical spondylosis - degenerative disc disease, osteophyte formation, natural history, clinical presentation, imaging interpretation, and management strategies for age-related cervical spine degeneration.
  • Chiari Malformation (Orthopaedic Relevance)Exam-focused guide to Chiari I malformation for the orthopaedic surgeon: what it is, why the cerebellar tonsils matter for the spine, the syringomyelia link that drives atypical scoliosis and neuropathic (Charcot) joints, when to MRI the whole spine in scoliosis, the role of posterior fossa decompression before fusion, and the red flags you must not miss.
  • CoccydyniaComprehensive guide to coccygeal pain including aetiology, dynamic radiographic assessment, injection therapy, and coccygectomy for refractory cases.
  • Conus Medullaris SyndromeComprehensive guide to conus medullaris syndrome: L1-L2 cord-tip lesion, early symmetric saddle anaesthesia, mixed UMN/LMN signs, and acute sphincter dysfunction.
  • Degenerative Disc DiseaseComprehensive guide to lumbar degenerative disc disease including diagnosis, conservative management, and surgical options.
  • Degenerative SpondylolisthesisComprehensive guide to degenerative spondylolisthesis: pathophysiology, classification, and management.
  • Dermatomes, Myotomes & Spinal Nerve Root AnatomyFellowship-level guide to dermatomes and myotomes: the ISNCSCI key sensory points and key muscles, reflex levels, radiculopathy localisation, and the ASIA examination.
  • Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH)Exam-focused guide to DISH (Forestier's disease): flowing anterior ossification, the Resnick criteria, the dangerous ankylosed-spine fracture, dysphagia, and how DISH differs from ankylosing spondylitis.
  • Discogenic Back PainComprehensive guide to discogenic back pain - pathophysiology, diagnosis, conservative and interventional management including disc decompression and fusion surgery
  • Dropped Head SyndromeComprehensive guide to dropped head syndrome - diagnosis, classification, pathophysiology, and surgical management of cervical extensor weakness for FRACS exam
  • Facet ArthropathyComprehensive guide to lumbar facet joint osteoarthritis, including biomechanics, clinical presentation, diagnostic criteria, and treatment options from conservative management to surgical fusion.
  • Failed Back Surgery SyndromeComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) - definition, etiology including wrong level surgery and inadequate decompression, evaluation algorithm, scar tissue vs recurrent disc herniation, pain management, spinal cord stimulation, revision surgery indications, and prevention strategies.
  • Flatback SyndromeComprehensive FRACS exam guide to flatback syndrome - loss of lumbar lordosis, sagittal imbalance, pathophysiology, radiographic assessment (SVA, PI-LL mismatch), conservative management, and surgical correction with Smith-Petersen, PSO, and VCR osteotomies.
  • Fungal Spine InfectionsComprehensive guide to diagnosis and management of fungal spondylodiscitis including Aspergillus, Candida, and endemic mycoses
  • Halo Vest Application and ManagementFellowship-level guide to halo-thoracic orthosis: indications, pin-site anatomy and safe zones, torque protocols, vest fitting, complications, weaning, and the paradigm shift away from halo use in the elderly.
  • Hangman's FractureTraumatic spondylolisthesis of the axis (C2) - comprehensive guide covering mechanism, Levine-Edwards classification, stability assessment, and management for Orthopaedic examination
  • Intradural Extramedullary TumorsComprehensive guide to intradural extramedullary spinal tumors including schwannoma, meningioma, and neurofibroma - diagnosis, MRI features, and surgical management for FRACS exam
  • Intramedullary Spinal TumorsComprehensive guide to intramedullary spinal cord tumors including ependymoma, astrocytoma, and hemangioblastoma with surgical management for FRACS examination
  • Isthmic SpondylolisthesisComprehensive guide to isthmic spondylolisthesis - pars defect, Wiltse classification, Meyerding grading, and management for FRACS exam
  • Jefferson FractureBurst fracture of the C1 ring from axial loading - comprehensive guide covering biomechanics, classification, stability assessment, and management strategies for Orthopaedic examination
  • Low Back Pain: Assessment & Non-operative Management (Overview)Fellowship-level overview of low back pain: the diagnostic triage (non-specific mechanical vs radicular vs serious pathology), the RED FLAGS for serious disease (including cauda equina), the yellow flags that predict chronicity, why routine imaging is harmful, and evidence-based non-operative management with the biopsychosocial model.
  • Lumbar Disc Arthroplasty (Total Disc Replacement)Comprehensive guide to lumbar total disc replacement - indications, contraindications, implant designs, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes for FRCS exam preparation
  • Lumbar Disc HerniationComprehensive guide to lumbar disc herniation - epidemiology, disc anatomy, herniation types, radiculopathy, conservative vs surgical management, microdiscectomy technique, and recurrence prevention
  • Lumbar Fusion TechniquesComprehensive guide to lumbar fusion approaches - PLIF, TLIF, ALIF, lateral interbody fusion - indications, techniques, outcomes, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
  • Lumbar InstabilityComprehensive guide to lumbar instability, including White and Panjabi criteria, radiographic assessment, clinical correlation, and fusion indications
  • Lumbar LaminectomyComprehensive guide to lumbar laminectomy for spinal stenosis - patient selection, surgical technique, with or without fusion decision, outcomes, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
  • Lumbar MicrodiscectomyComprehensive guide to lumbar microdiscectomy for disc herniation - patient selection, surgical technique, outcomes, recurrence, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
  • Lumbar RadiculopathyComprehensive guide to lumbar radiculopathy - nerve root patterns, dermatomal distributions, diagnosis, and management for FRACS exam
  • Lumbar Spinal StenosisComprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to lumbar spinal stenosis - pathophysiology, neurogenic claudication, clinical assessment, imaging interpretation, conservative management, and surgical techniques including laminectomy, laminoplasty, and interspinous process devices.
  • Lumbosacral Plexus AnatomyDetailed anatomy of the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, their branches, relations to Psoas/Piriformis, and clinical implications.
  • Metastatic Spine DiseaseComprehensive guide to metastatic spine disease including SINS classification, NOMS framework, Bilsky grading, surgical indications, and management for FRACS exam
  • Multiple Myeloma of the SpineComprehensive guide to multiple myeloma spinal involvement including diagnosis, imaging criteria, IMWG guidelines, and orthopaedic management for FRACS exam
  • Navigation & Robotics in Spine SurgeryFellowship-level guide to image-guided navigation and robotic assistance for spinal instrumentation: how they improve pedicle-screw accuracy (Gertzbein-Robbins grading) over freehand and fluoroscopy, the comparison between navigation and robotics, the reduction in reoperation and surgeon radiation, and the trade-offs of cost, operative time, registration/line-of-sight error and the learning curve.
  • Nerve Sheath Tumors of the SpineComprehensive guide to schwannomas and neurofibromas of the spine including diagnosis, surgical resection techniques, and management of neurofibromatosis for FRACS examination
  • OALL / DISH (Cervical Hyperostosis)Comprehensive guide to OALL and DISH, focusing on dysphagia management and anterior osteophytectomy.
  • Occipitocervical / Craniocervical Junction InstabilityFellowship-level guide to craniocervical junction instability: the ligament-dependent anatomy, traumatic atlanto-occipital dissociation (highly lethal) and atraumatic causes (rheumatoid arthritis, Down syndrome, congenital), the CT measurements (CCI, BDI/BAI, Powers ratio) used to diagnose it, the avoid-traction caution, and occipitocervical fusion.
  • Occipitocervical FusionIndications, occipital and cervical fixation strategies, the critical occipito-cervical angle, reduction of basilar invagination, and complication management in O-C fusion.
  • Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament (OPLL)Comprehensive guide to OPLL causing cervical canal stenosis and myelopathy, covering epidemiology, CT classification (K-line), dural ossification risk, and anterior versus posterior surgical decompression.
  • Paraspinal AbscessComprehensive guide to paraspinal abscess including diagnosis, management, and surgical drainage techniques for FRACS examination preparation
  • Posterior Vertebral Apophyseal Ring FractureAdolescent posterior limbus/apophyseal ring avulsion of the lumbar vertebral body, mimicking disc herniation, with CT diagnosis and surgical excision of the fragment and associated disc.
  • Primary Bone Tumors of the SpineComprehensive guide to primary malignant spine tumors including chordoma, chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma - diagnosis, imaging, staging and surgical management for FRACS exam
  • Proximal Junctional Kyphosis (PJK)Comprehensive guide to proximal junctional kyphosis including definition, classification, risk factors, prevention strategies, and management for orthopaedic fellowship exam
  • Pseudarthrosis of the SpineComprehensive guide to spinal pseudarthrosis: risk factors, diagnosis with CT imaging, prevention strategies, and revision surgery principles for FRACS exam preparation
  • Pseudosubluxation of the Cervical Spine (Paediatric)Fellowship-level guide to physiological pseudosubluxation of the paediatric cervical spine: the normal anterior displacement of C2 on C3 (and C3 on C4) seen in young children, why it occurs, how the Swischuk posterior cervical line distinguishes it from a true injury, the other paediatric cervical radiographic variants that mimic trauma, and the practical approach to the child with a possible cervical injury.
  • Pyogenic Discitis & OsteomyelitisComprehensive guide to spinal infection, focusing on diagnosis (MRI, Biopsy) and antimicrobial management.
  • Revision Deformity SurgeryComprehensive guide to revision surgery for failed adult spinal deformity correction, including etiology, assessment, complex surgical techniques, and complication management for this challenging patient population.
  • Rod Fractures in Spinal InstrumentationComprehensive guide to rod fractures following spinal fusion surgery, including risk factors, biomechanical principles, diagnosis, and management strategies for this significant complication.
  • Sacral Insufficiency / Stress FractureFellowship-level guide to sacral insufficiency fractures: the osteoporotic 'great mimicker' in the elderly, the H-shaped (Honda sign) fracture pattern, why radiographs miss it and MRI is most sensitive, the imperative to exclude malignancy and treat the osteoporosis, and conservative-versus-surgical (sacroplasty/fixation) management.
  • Sacroiliac Joint DysfunctionComprehensive guide to SI joint dysfunction diagnosis and management for FRCS exam preparation
  • Sacropelvic Fixation (S2-Alar-Iliac & Iliac Screws)Fellowship-level guide to sacropelvic fixation in long spinal constructs: why fixation must extend to the pelvis to protect S1 screws and the lumbosacral junction, the iliac screw versus the S2-alar-iliac (S2AI) screw (in-line trajectory crossing the SI joint, fewer offset connectors), the biomechanical rationale, accuracy with robotic/navigated guidance, and the recognised complications including sacroiliac joint pain and screw failure.
  • Sagittal Balance ParametersComprehensive guide to spinopelvic sagittal balance parameters including pelvic incidence, sacral slope, pelvic tilt, SVA, lumbar lordosis, and their clinical applications for orthopaedic fellowship exam
  • Spinal Cord Monitoring (Intraoperative Neuromonitoring: SSEP, MEP, EMG, Wake-up Test)Fellowship-level guide to intraoperative neuromonitoring in spine surgery: what SSEP, MEP and EMG each monitor and their alarm criteria, why multimodal monitoring is standard, the anaesthetic requirements (TIVA, no paralytics for MEP), the structured response to a signal change, and the Stagnara wake-up test.
  • Spinal Epidural AbscessComprehensive guide to spinal epidural abscess including the diagnostic triad, risk factors, urgent MRI evaluation, and emergent surgical decompression plus antibiotics.
  • Spinal Tuberculosis (Pott's Disease)Comprehensive guide to spinal tuberculosis including diagnosis, imaging, medical and surgical management, and outcomes for orthopaedic fellowship exam
  • Spinopelvic ParametersComprehensive guide to spinopelvic parameters - pelvic incidence, lumbar lordosis, sagittal vertical axis, and their role in spinal alignment, deformity correction, and total hip arthroplasty stability.
  • Split Cord Malformation (Diastematomyelia)Comprehensive guide to split cord malformation including Pang classification, tethered cord association, cutaneous markers, congenital scoliosis links, and mandatory MRI evaluation before deformity correction.
  • SpondylolisthesisComprehensive exam-ready guide to spondylolisthesis - classification, assessment, and surgical management
  • Synovial Cysts (Spine)Comprehensive guide to Lumbar Synovial Cysts, including pathophysiology, MRI appearance, and the surgical management debate (Decompression vs Fusion).
  • SyringomyeliaComprehensive guide to syringomyelia and its orthopaedic manifestations, including cape-distribution dissociated sensory loss, Charcot joints, and syrinx-associated scoliosis.
  • Tethered Cord SyndromeFellowship-level guide to tethered cord syndrome: abnormal caudal fixation of the spinal cord (a low-lying conus with a thickened/fatty filum terminale) producing progressive neuro-orthopaedic, urological and pain symptoms; the cutaneous stigmata and orthopaedic clues (cavovarus foot, leg-length/atrophy, scoliosis), the role of MRI, and surgical untethering - and why it matters to the orthopaedic surgeon.
  • Thoracic Disc HerniationComprehensive evidence-based guide to thoracic disc herniation - rare pathology, myelopathy risk, surgical approach selection, and outcomes for FRACS orthopaedic exam preparation
  • Three-Column OsteotomiesComprehensive guide to three-column osteotomies including pedicle subtraction osteotomy and vertebral column resection for complex spinal deformity correction
  • Torg-Pavlov Ratio for Cervical StenosisThe canal-to-vertebral-body ratio for detecting cervical spinal stenosis on lateral radiographs — its measurement, thresholds, limitations in athletes, and its role in transient quadriparesis risk stratification.
  • Vertebral Artery Injury in Cervical TraumaFellowship-level guide to blunt vertebral artery injury in cervical spine trauma: the at-risk anatomy (V2 through the transverse foramina), screening criteria, CT angiography, the Biffl/Denver grading, the risk of posterior-circulation stroke, and antithrombotic-led management - with the orthopaedic imperative to screen before reducing high-risk cervical injuries.
  • Vertebroplasty and KyphoplastyComprehensive guide to vertebral augmentation (vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty) for vertebral compression fractures - indications, technique, outcomes, complications, and the sham-controlled vs open-label trial evidence (Kallmes, Buchbinder, VAPOUR, VERTOS, FREE) for orthopaedic exam preparation

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