Orthopaedic Surgery Topic Library β 1259 Evidence-Based Articles
Comprehensive orthopaedic surgery education covering trauma, arthroplasty, spine, hand and upper limb, foot and ankle, paediatrics, sports medicine, oncology, and basic science with public editorial standards and correction routes.
Acetabular Fractures β Comprehensive guide to acetabular fractures - Judet-Letournel classification, column concept, surgical approaches for orthopaedic exam
Acromioclavicular Joint Injuries β Comprehensive guide to AC joint injuries - Rockwood classification, Type III controversy, surgical indications, hook plate vs CC reconstruction, and management pearls for orthopaedic exam
Acute Compartment Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to acute compartment syndrome - pathophysiology, diagnosis, fasciotomy techniques, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam
Acute Compartment Syndrome of the Leg β Time-critical surgical emergency: clinical diagnosis, Delta P less than 30mmHg threshold, and two-incision four-compartment fasciotomy for acute compartment syndrome of the leg.
Ankle Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to ankle dislocations - talus tibia fibula mortise, urgent reduction, associated fractures, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Ankle Fractures β Comprehensive guide to ankle fractures - Weber classification, syndesmotic injury patterns, stability assessment, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Anterior Process Calcaneus Fractures β Comprehensive guide to anterior process calcaneus fractures - bifurcate ligament avulsion, mechanism, diagnosis, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
AO/OTA Fracture Classification β The universal AO/OTA alphanumeric fracture classification β bone-segment-type-group-subgroup coding, its clinical application in fracture communication and research, and how it complements eponymous systems.
ATLS Primary Survey and Trauma Resuscitation β Systematic ABCDE primary survey, cABCDE catastrophic haemorrhage control, damage-control resuscitation, permissive hypotension, massive transfusion protocols, and the orthopaedic role in polytrauma management.
Atypical Femoral Fractures β Comprehensive guide to atypical femoral fractures - bisphosphonate-associated fractures, ASBMR criteria, surgical management, and drug holiday protocols for Orthopaedic orthopaedic exam
Barton's Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Barton's fractures - volar and dorsal rim fracture-dislocations of the distal radius, classification, surgical management, and Orthopaedic exam preparation
Basicervical Fractures β Comprehensive guide to basicervical fractures - junctional fracture between neck and intertrochanteric region, treatment ORIF vs arthroplasty, and management for orthopaedic exam
Bennett's Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Bennett's fracture-dislocation of the thumb metacarpal base including mechanism, classification, reduction techniques, and surgical fixation for orthopaedic examination
Blast Injuries of the Extremity β Comprehensive guide to blast-related extremity trauma including primary-quaternary mechanisms, zone of injury, serial debridement, damage control orthopaedics, traumatic amputation, wound management, and the reconstruction versus amputation decision.
Bohler and Gissane Angles β Bohler's tuber joint angle and Gissane's crucial angle β radiographic measurements for assessing calcaneal fracture severity, guiding operative decisions, and predicting outcomes.
Bosworth Fracture-Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to Bosworth fracture-dislocations - rare ankle injuries with fixed posterior dislocation of the fibula behind the tibia
Both Column Acetabular Fractures β Comprehensive guide to both column acetabular fractures including Letournel classification, the pathognomonic spur sign, surgical approaches, and fixation strategies
Both-Bone Forearm Fractures β Comprehensive guide to both-bone forearm fractures in adults - anatomic reduction imperative, plating techniques, compartment syndrome, and decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Brodie Abscess β Comprehensive guide to Brodie abscess (subacute localised osteomyelitis), including diagnosis, imaging features, differential diagnosis, and management with curettage and antibiotics.
Calcaneal Tuberosity Fractures β Comprehensive guide to calcaneal tuberosity fractures - Achilles tendon avulsion, ORIF techniques, tension band wiring, and outcomes for orthopaedic exam
Canadian C-Spine Rule β The Canadian C-Spine Rule for deciding cervical-spine radiography in alert and stable adult trauma patients β high-risk factors mandating imaging, low-risk factors permitting range-of-motion testing, decision thresholds, and comparison with NEXUS.
Chopart Injuries β Comprehensive guide to Chopart (Midtarsal) Joint Injuries - Talonavicular and Calcaneocuboid dislocations and fracture-dislocations.
Clavicle Fractures β Comprehensive guide to clavicle fractures - Allman/Robinson classification, midshaft management controversy, ORIF indications, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Clay-Shoveler's Fractures β Comprehensive guide to clay-shoveler's fractures including spinous process avulsion, ghost sign, stability assessment, and conservative management for orthopaedic examination preparation
Coccyx Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Coccyx Fractures (Tailbone Injuries) - Diagnosis, conservative management, and surgical options.
Compartments of the Leg β Fellowship-level anatomy of the four leg compartments - their muscles, nerves and vessels - and the surgical relevance for acute compartment syndrome and four-compartment fasciotomy.
Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) β Comprehensive guide to Complex Regional Pain Syndrome - Budapest criteria, stages, prevention with vitamin C, multidisciplinary management, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Coronoid Fractures β Comprehensive guide to coronoid fractures - O'Driscoll classification, elbow stability implications, fixation techniques, and decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Crescent Fracture (SI Joint Fracture-Dislocation, Day Classification) β Fellowship-level guide to the crescent fracture-dislocation of the sacroiliac joint: a lateral-compression pelvic-ring injury where the posterior ilium fractures leaving a crescent fragment attached to the sacrum, the Day classification (I-III by crescent size and proportion of SI joint dislocated), and how it guides reduction and fixation (ORIF vs percutaneous iliosacral screws).
Crush Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to crush syndrome - rhabdomyolysis, hyperkalemia, myoglobinuria, pre-hospital IV fluids before extrication, fasciotomy indications, and renal protection strategies for orthopaedic fellowship exam
Cuboid Fractures β Comprehensive guide to cuboid fractures - nutcracker mechanism, compression injury, Lisfranc association, and ORIF techniques for orthopaedic exam
Cuneiform Fractures β Comprehensive guide to cuneiform fractures - medial intermediate lateral cuneiform, midfoot trauma, Lisfranc association, and ORIF techniques for orthopaedic exam
Damage Control Orthopaedics β Comprehensive guide to damage control orthopaedics - polytrauma management, DCO vs ETC, timing of definitive fixation, physiological parameters for orthopaedic exam
Die-Punch Fractures β Comprehensive guide to die-punch fractures of the distal radius - lunate facet depression fractures, mechanism, classification, surgical management, and Orthopaedic exam preparation
Distal Femur Fractures β Comprehensive guide to distal femur fractures - AO classification, Hoffa fractures, retrograde nail vs plating, prosthetic considerations, and operative approaches for orthopaedic exam
Distal Humerus Fractures β Comprehensive guide to distal humerus fractures - AO/OTA classification, bicolumnar concept, surgical approaches, TEA indications, and decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Distal Radius Fractures β Comprehensive orthopaedic exam guide to distal radius fractures - Frykman and AO classification, volar locking plates, external fixation, and outcome optimization
Elbow Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to elbow dislocations - simple vs complex, reduction techniques, stability assessment, and rehabilitation for orthopaedic exam
Elbow Stiffness & Contracture (Post-traumatic Arthrofibrosis) β Fellowship-level guide to the stiff elbow: the functional arc of motion, intrinsic vs extrinsic (Morrey) causes including heterotopic ossification, why prevention (stable fixation + early motion) matters, non-operative splinting, and open or arthroscopic contracture release (arthrolysis) with its outcomes.
Essex-Lopresti Injuries β Comprehensive guide to Essex-Lopresti injuries including forearm longitudinal instability, interosseous membrane disruption, and management for Orthopaedic examination
Extensor Mechanism Ruptures β Comprehensive guide to extensor mechanism ruptures - quadriceps and patellar tendon ruptures, primary repair, allograft reconstruction, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
External Fixation Principles β Comprehensive guide to external fixation - frame types, pin placement, biomechanics, safe corridors, complications, and conversion to internal fixation for orthopaedic fellowship exam preparation
Fat Embolism Syndrome β Comprehensive exam-focused review of Fat Embolism Syndrome including clinical presentation, investigation, management, and key exam points
Fat Embolism Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to fat embolism syndrome following long-bone fractures, including Gurd criteria, timing of presentation, prevention by early fixation, and supportive management.
Femoral Head Fractures β Comprehensive guide to femoral head fractures including Pipkin classification, surgical management, and outcomes for orthopaedic examination
Femoral Neck Fracture Nonunion β Fellowship-level guide to nonunion of the femoral neck after fixation: why the intracapsular neck fails to unite (poor blood supply, no periosteal callus, shear across a vertical fracture), and the age- and head-viability-driven decision between a valgus intertrochanteric osteotomy (converting shear to compression in the young) and arthroplasty.
Femoral Shaft Fractures β Comprehensive orthopaedic exam guide to femoral shaft fractures - intramedullary nailing, antegrade vs retrograde, damage control orthopaedics, and ipsilateral femoral neck screening
Fibular Shaft Fractures β Comprehensive guide to fibular shaft fractures - isolated vs associated injuries, Maisonneuve fracture, syndesmosis assessment, and treatment algorithms
Finger Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to finger dislocations for Orthopaedic examination
Flail Chest / Chest Wall Trauma (Orthopaedic Relevance) β Fellowship-level guide to flail chest and chest wall trauma for the orthopaedic surgeon: the definition (three or more contiguous ribs fractured in two or more places giving a paradoxically-moving segment), why the underlying pulmonary contusion and pain-related hypoventilation - not the paradox alone - drive morbidity, the role of multimodal analgesia and pulmonary toilet, and the growing evidence for surgical stabilisation of rib fractures (SSRF), especially early in flail chest.
Floating Elbow β Fellowship-level guide to the floating elbow: ipsilateral fractures above and below the elbow (classically a supracondylar humerus fracture with a forearm fracture in children, or a humeral plus forearm fracture in adults), a marker of high-energy trauma with a high rate of open injury, neurovascular damage and compartment syndrome, requiring operative stabilisation of both fractures.
Floating Knee Injury β Comprehensive guide to floating knee injuries for FRCS examination
Floating Shoulder Injuries β Comprehensive guide to floating shoulder - ipsilateral clavicle and scapula fractures disrupting superior shoulder suspensory complex, management algorithms, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Foot Compartment Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to foot compartment syndrome including the nine compartments, association with calcaneal and Lisfranc injuries, pressure measurement thresholds, fasciotomy indications, and late reconstruction for claw toe sequelae.
Forearm Compartment Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to forearm compartment syndrome - pathophysiology, clinical diagnosis, pressure monitoring, fasciotomy technique, and Volkmann's contracture prevention for orthopaedic exam
Forearm Shaft Fracture (Adult) β Comprehensive guide to adult forearm shaft fractures including both-bone fractures, isolated radius/ulna fractures, classification, surgical fixation techniques, and complications
Frykman Classification of Distal Radius Fractures β The Frykman classification system for distal radius fractures β eight types (IβVIII) defined by intra-articular involvement of the radiocarpal and distal radioulnar joints, with or without ulnar styloid fracture.
Galeazzi Fractures β Comprehensive orthopaedic exam guide to Galeazzi fracture-dislocations - the fracture of necessity, DRUJ instability, ORIF with plate fixation, and rehabilitation
Garden Classification of Femoral Neck Fractures β The Garden classification for intracapsular femoral neck fractures β the four types, their radiographic features, displacement implications for avascular necrosis and nonunion, and why the system is often simplified to undisplaced versus displaced.
Gas Gangrene (Clostridial Myonecrosis) β Comprehensive guide to gas gangrene - Clostridium perfringens, alpha toxin pathophysiology, clinical diagnosis, radical debridement, penicillin-clindamycin, hyperbaric oxygen, amputation indications for orthopaedic fellowship exam
Glenoid Fractures β Comprehensive guide to glenoid fractures - Ideberg classification, bone loss assessment, surgical indications, arthroscopic vs open repair for orthopaedic exam
Greater Tuberosity Fractures β Comprehensive guide to greater tuberosity fractures including classification, management algorithms, and rotator cuff considerations for Orthopaedic examination
Gustilo-Anderson Classification of Open Fractures β The Gustilo-Anderson system for grading open fractures by wound size, soft-tissue injury, contamination, and neurovascular status β guiding antibiotic choice, debridement timing, and coverage strategy.
Hamate Fractures β Comprehensive guide to hamate fractures - anatomy of hook and body, mechanisms, classification, clinical presentation, and management for orthopaedic exam
Hawkins Classification of Talar Neck Fractures β The Hawkins classification for talar neck fractures β the four types, mechanism of injury, avascular necrosis risk by grade, Hawkins sign, and how classification guides fixation strategy.
Heterotopic Ossification β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to heterotopic ossification (HO) in orthopaedic surgery - Brooker classification, risk factors, prevention strategies, and surgical management
Hip Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to hip dislocations - Thompson-Epstein classification, posterior vs anterior mechanisms, associated injuries, reduction techniques, and sciatic nerve considerations for orthopaedic exam
Hip Fracture-Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to hip fracture-dislocations - Thompson-Epstein classification, Pipkin fractures, acetabular fractures, urgent reduction, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Hoffa Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Hoffa fractures - coronal plane fractures of the femoral condyles, classification, surgical fixation techniques for Orthopaedic orthopaedic exam
Humeral Head Fractures β Comprehensive guide to humeral head fractures including head-splitting, impression fractures, and management strategies for Orthopaedic examination
Humeral Shaft Fractures β Comprehensive guide to humeral shaft fractures - AO/OTA classification, radial nerve palsy assessment, Holstein-Lewis fracture, and operative vs non-operative management for orthopaedic exam
Humeral Shaft Nonunion β Fellowship-level guide to nonunion of the humeral shaft: the risk factors and patterns, hypertrophic versus atrophic versus infected nonunion, why exchange nailing is unreliable in the humerus, and the gold-standard treatment - compression plating with autogenous bone graft - with its high union rates and the radial-nerve caveat.
Ideberg Classification of Glenoid Fractures β The Ideberg classification system for glenoid fossa fractures of the scapula β types I through VI, mechanism of injury, operative indications, and exam-level decision-making.
Iliac Wing Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Iliac Wing (Duverney) Fractures - Stable pelvic injuries from direct trauma.
Intercondylar Fractures of the Distal Humerus β Comprehensive guide to intercondylar distal humerus fractures including AO/OTA classification, surgical techniques, and outcomes for Orthopaedic examination
Intertrochanteric Fractures β Comprehensive guide to intertrochanteric hip fractures - Evans/Jensen classification, SHS vs CMN, TAD principle, geriatric optimization for orthopaedic exam
Isolated Radius Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Isolated Radial Shaft Fractures (Non-Galeazzi) - diagnosis, classification, and management
Isolated Ulna Fractures (Nightstick Fractures) β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to isolated ulna shaft fractures - nightstick fracture, direct blow mechanism, nonoperative vs ORIF decision-making
Jones Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Jones fractures of the fifth metatarsal including mechanism, classification, surgical technique, and athlete management for orthopaedic examination preparation
Lateral Compression Pelvic Injuries β Lateral compression (LC) pelvic ring injuries - Young-Burgess classification, mechanism, associated injuries, and management from hemodynamically stable to unstable patients
Lateral Process Talus Fractures β Comprehensive guide to lateral process talus fractures - snowboarder fracture, mechanism, classification, ORIF vs excision, and subtalar arthritis prevention for orthopaedic exam
Lauge-Hansen Classification of Ankle Fractures β The Lauge-Hansen mechanism-based classification of ankle fractures β the four injury patterns, their staged ligament and bone sequences, and how the pattern guides reduction and fixation.
Lesser Tuberosity Fractures β Comprehensive guide to lesser tuberosity fractures including posterior dislocation association, subscapularis involvement, and management for Orthopaedic examination
Letournel-Judet Classification of Acetabular Fractures β The Letournel-Judet system for classifying acetabular fractures β the five elementary and five associated patterns, the column-and-wall concept, Judet radiographic views, CT interpretation, and how the pattern dictates the surgical approach.
Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound (LIPUS) for Fracture Healing β Fellowship-level guide to low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) - a non-invasive, low-risk mechanical-stimulation device applied daily to promote bone healing, working at the molecular level across the stages of repair - covering the proposed mechanism, the evidence base (a low-risk adjunct with the strongest rationale in delayed/non-union, though high-quality trials show inconsistent benefit in fresh fractures), the contrast with surgical revision as the definitive treatment for non-union, and the current evidence-tempered place of LIPUS in practice.
Lunate and Perilunate Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to lunate and perilunate dislocations - Mayfield stages, diagnosis, emergency management, and surgical reconstruction for orthopaedic exam
Lunate Fractures β Comprehensive guide to lunate fractures - diagnosis, classification, association with Kienbock's disease, surgical management, and Orthopaedic exam preparation
Lunotriquetral Instability β Comprehensive guide to lunotriquetral instability - LTIL injury, VISI deformity, diagnosis, and management including LT arthrodesis for orthopaedic exam
Luxatio Erecta (Inferior Glenohumeral Dislocation) β Fellowship-level guide to luxatio erecta humeri - the rare inferior glenohumeral dislocation in which the arm is locked hyperabducted above the head: its pathomechanics (axial load on an abducted arm or hyperabduction leverage over the acromion), the unmistakable clinical sign, its high rate of neurovascular injury (brachial plexus, axillary artery) and rotator-cuff/greater-tuberosity damage, traction-countertraction reduction, and outcomes.
Maisonneuve Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Maisonneuve fractures - proximal fibula fracture with syndesmotic disruption, deltoid ligament injury, recognition and surgical management for orthopaedic exam
Malunion, Delayed Union and Nonunion β Comprehensive guide to fracture healing complications including nonunion classification, Weber-Cech types, exchange nailing, Masquelet technique, and deformity correction for orthopaedic exam
Mangled Extremity and Limb Salvage Decision-Making β A consultant-level orthopaedic trauma guide to mangled extremity assessment, revascularisation, limb salvage, amputation decision-making, counselling and complications.
Mayo Classification of Olecranon Fractures β The Mayo (Morrey) classification of olecranon fractures β type I undisplaced, type II displaced stable, type III displaced unstable, with comminution subtypes and treatment guidance for tension-band wiring, plate fixation, and excision.
Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome (Shin Splints) β Comprehensive guide to medial tibial stress syndrome - pathophysiology, differential diagnosis, imaging, and evidence-based management for orthopaedic exam
Rolando's Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Rolando's fracture (comminuted intra-articular thumb metacarpal base fracture) including classification, surgical approaches, and outcomes for orthopaedic examination
Russell-Taylor Classification of Subtrochanteric Fractures β The Russell-Taylor classification of subtrochanteric femoral fractures β how piriformis fossa and lesser trochanter involvement guides implant choice between intramedullary nail and extramedullary plate.
Sacral Fractures β Comprehensive guide to sacral fractures including Denis zones, neurological injury patterns, spinopelvic dissociation, and surgical fixation strategies
Sanders Classification of Calcaneal Fractures β The CT-based Sanders classification of displaced intra-articular calcaneal fractures β fracture lines through the posterior facet, types I to IV, and how the type drives operative decision-making and prognosis.
Scaphoid Fractures β Comprehensive guide to scaphoid fractures - Herbert classification, blood supply, nonunion risk factors, and management for orthopaedic exam
Scaphoid Nonunion β Comprehensive guide to scaphoid nonunion - humpback deformity, SNAC wrist progression, vascularized bone graft, Herbert classification for orthopaedic exam
Scaphoid Nonunion Advanced Collapse (SNAC) β Comprehensive guide to SNAC wrist - natural history, Watson staging, radiographic findings, surgical management including scaphoid excision four-corner fusion and proximal row carpectomy for FRACS exam
Scapholunate Dissociation β Comprehensive guide to scapholunate ligament injuries including diagnosis, staging, repair/reconstruction techniques, and SLAC wrist progression for orthopaedic examination
Scapula Fractures β Comprehensive guide to scapula fractures - glenoid and body patterns, floating shoulder, high-energy associations, surgical indications, and decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Scapulothoracic Dissociation β Comprehensive guide to scapulothoracic dissociation - closed forequarter amputation, neurovascular assessment, Damschen classification, limb-salvage vs amputation decision, and management priorities for orthopaedic exam
Schatzker Classification of Tibial Plateau Fractures β The six-type Schatzker classification for tibial plateau fractures β patterns from lateral split to metaphyseal-diaphyseal dissociation, energy level implications, associated injuries, and why CT is mandatory for operative planning.
Segond Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Segond fractures - lateral tibial plateau avulsion, anterolateral ligament injury, pathognomonic for ACL tear, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Seinsheimer Classification of Subtrochanteric Fractures β The Seinsheimer classification system for subtrochanteric femoral fractures β five types by fragment count and fracture geometry, subtrochanteric biomechanics, and implant selection.
Shoulder Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to shoulder dislocations - anterior vs posterior mechanisms, Bankart and Hill-Sachs lesions, acute management, surgical indications, and recurrence risk for orthopaedic exam
Shoulder Fracture-Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to anterior and posterior shoulder fracture-dislocations, including classification, reduction maneuvers, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination
Spinal Cord Injury β Comprehensive guide to spinal cord injury - ASIA classification, neurogenic shock, methylprednisolone controversy, timing of surgery, rehabilitation for orthopaedic exam
Spinopelvic / Lumbosacral Dissociation (U-shaped Sacral Fracture) β Fellowship-level guide to traumatic spinopelvic dissociation: a transverse sacral fracture combined with bilateral vertical sacral fractures (U-, H-, Y- or lambda-shaped) that separates the spine from the pelvis - a high-energy, frequently missed injury with a high rate of neurological injury, classified by Roy-Camille and Denis zone, and stabilised with lumbopelvic (triangular) fixation.
Sternoclavicular Joint Injuries β Comprehensive guide to SC joint injuries - anterior vs posterior dislocation, Rockwood classification, emergent reduction of posterior dislocations, and surgical techniques for orthopaedic exam
Subaxial Cervical Spine Fractures β Comprehensive guide to subaxial cervical spine injuries - SLIC classification, AO Spine classification, surgical decision-making, anterior vs posterior approaches for orthopaedic exam
Subtalar Dislocations β Pure subtalar dislocations (peritalar dislocations) - medial vs lateral types, closed reduction techniques, associated injuries, and outcomes
Subtrochanteric Fractures β Comprehensive orthopaedic exam guide to subtrochanteric femur fractures - Russell-Taylor classification, characteristic deformity, reduction before reaming, cephalomedullary nailing, and atypical bisphosphonate fractures
Supracondylar Fractures (Adult) β Comprehensive guide to adult supracondylar humerus fractures covering anatomy, classification, surgical approaches, and complications for Orthopaedic examination
Sustentaculum Tali Fractures β Comprehensive guide to sustentaculum tali fractures - medial calcaneus, FHL tendon at risk, medial plantar nerve, and ORIF techniques for orthopaedic exam
Talar Body Fractures β Fellowship-level guide to fractures of the talar body: the Sneppen classification, the precarious retrograde blood supply and high rate of avascular necrosis, the role of CT, principles of anatomic articular reduction and rigid fixation (often via malleolar osteotomy), and the management of AVN and post-traumatic tibiotalar/subtalar arthritis.
Teardrop Fractures β Comprehensive guide to cervical teardrop fractures including flexion (burst) vs extension types, stability assessment, SLIC classification, and surgical management for orthopaedic examination preparation
Elbow Transcondylar Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Transcondylar Fractures of the Elbow - separation of the articular condyles from the humerus in adults
Metatarsal Fractures β Comprehensive guide to metatarsal fractures for FRCS examination
Metatarsal Stress Fractures β Comprehensive guide to metatarsal stress fractures including second metatarsal marching fracture, fifth metatarsal high-risk zones, diagnosis, and management for orthopaedic examination preparation
Monteggia and Galeazzi Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Monteggia and Galeazzi fracture-dislocations for Orthopaedic examination
Monteggia Fractures β Complete orthopaedic exam guide to Monteggia fracture-dislocations covering Bado classification, surgical management, and complications
Morel-Lavallee Lesion β Closed internal degloving injury after blunt shear trauma, including clinical recognition, imaging, classification, management, sclerodesis, debridement, recurrence and infection risk.
Multi-Ligament Knee Injuries β Comprehensive guide to multi-ligament knee injuries (MLKI) and knee dislocations - classification, vascular assessment, surgical timing, reconstruction techniques for Orthopaedic orthopaedic exam
Myositis Ossificans β Comprehensive guide to myositis ossificans - heterotopic bone formation in muscle, zoning phenomenon, maturity assessment, surgical excision timing, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Navicular Fractures β Comprehensive guide to tarsal navicular fractures covering anatomy, classification, clinical assessment, and management including stress fractures for orthopaedic examination preparation.
Neck of Femur Fracture β Comprehensive guide to femoral neck fractures and Garden classification for FRCS exam preparation
Neer Classification of Proximal Humerus Fractures β The Neer classification of proximal humeral fractures β Codman's four parts, the 1 cm / 45 degree displacement rule, category progression, and how it guides ORIF versus arthroplasty.
Nonunion Management β Comprehensive guide to fracture nonunion for FRCS exam preparation
Nutcracker Fractures β Comprehensive guide to nutcracker fractures - cuboid compression injury, Lisfranc association, lateral column shortening, and ORIF techniques for orthopaedic exam
Odontoid Fractures β Comprehensive guide to odontoid (dens) fractures - Anderson-D'Alonzo classification, stability assessment, and treatment options for orthopaedic exam
Olecranon Fractures β Comprehensive guide to olecranon fractures - Mayo classification, tension band wiring, plate fixation, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Open Book Pelvic Injuries β Comprehensive guide to open book pelvic fractures including symphysis diastasis, external rotation injuries, hemorrhage control, and surgical fixation
Open Fracture Classification and Management β A consultant-level orthopaedic guide to open fracture assessment, classification, debridement, fixation, antibiotics, orthoplastic reconstruction and complications.
Open Tibial Fractures β Comprehensive guide to open tibial fractures - Gustilo-Anderson classification, antibiotic protocols, wound management, soft tissue coverage principles for orthopaedic exam
Orthopaedic Gunshot Wounds and Ballistics β Advanced orthopaedic guide to gunshot wounds and ballistic fractures: tissue injury, low- and high-energy patterns, antibiotics, debridement, fixation, vascular risk, compartment syndrome and retained bullets.
Ottawa Ankle and Foot Rules β The Ottawa Ankle and Foot Rules β a validated clinical decision instrument that determines when radiography is necessary after acute ankle and midfoot injury, reducing unnecessary X-rays without missing clinically significant fractures.
Ottawa Knee Rules β A validated clinical decision rule for acute knee injury β the five criteria that mandate knee radiography, how to apply them, and the evidence behind near-100 percent sensitivity for fracture.
Patella Fractures β Comprehensive guide to patella fractures - AO classification, tension band wiring vs screw fixation, extensor mechanism integrity, and partial patellectomy indications for orthopaedic exam
Pathological Fractures - Femur β Comprehensive guide to pathological fractures of the femur - metastatic disease, Mirels' score, life expectancy estimation, IMN vs arthroplasty, cement augmentation, and palliative treatment for orthopaedic exam
Pathological Fractures (Humerus) β Comprehensive guide to pathological humerus fractures including metastatic disease, Mirels scoring, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination
Pauwels Classification of Femoral Neck Fractures β The Pauwels classification of femoral neck fractures based on the angle of the fracture line from the horizontal β how the three grades determine shear forces, nonunion risk, and fixation strategy.
PCL Avulsion Fractures β Comprehensive guide to PCL avulsion fractures - posterior tibial avulsion, posterior approach, screw or suture fixation, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Pelvic Avulsion Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Pelvic Avulsion Fractures - ASIS, AIIS, Ischial tuberosity, and Iliac crest avulsions in adolescent athletes.
Pelvic Ring Injuries β Advanced guide to pelvic ring injuries: recognition, stability assessment, haemorrhage control, classification, fixation strategy and complications.
Perilunate Injuries and Carpal Dislocations β Advanced orthopaedic guide to perilunate and lunate dislocations: Mayfield stages, missed diagnosis prevention, emergency reduction, fixation, ligament repair, median nerve protection and delayed-injury salvage.
Periprosthetic Fractures of Shoulder & Elbow Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to periprosthetic fractures around shoulder and elbow replacements: the location-based classifications (Wright-Cofield for the humerus after shoulder arthroplasty; Mayo/O'Driscoll-Morrey for total elbow arthroplasty), and the unifying Vancouver-style principle that fracture location, implant stability and bone quality drive treatment (ORIF/strut vs revision).
Periprosthetic Hip Fracture β Comprehensive guide to periprosthetic hip fractures and Vancouver classification for FRCS exam preparation
Phalangeal Fractures β Comprehensive guide to proximal and middle phalanx fractures including classification, reduction techniques, fixation options, and rehabilitation for orthopaedic examination
Phalangeal Fractures Foot β Comprehensive guide to phalangeal fractures of the foot - great toe hallux, lesser toes, proximal middle distal phalanx, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Pilon Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Tibial Plafond (Pilon) Fractures - diagnosis, classification, and staged management.
Pipkin Classification of Femoral Head Fractures β The Pipkin classification for femoral head fractures associated with posterior hip dislocation β four types based on fragment location relative to the fovea capitis and associated injuries, management principles, surgical approach selection, and AVN risk.
Pisiform Fractures β Comprehensive guide to pisiform fractures - anatomy, mechanisms, classification, clinical presentation, and management for orthopaedic exam
Pittsburgh Knee Rules β The Pittsburgh Knee Rules β a clinical decision rule for determining the need for radiography in acute blunt knee injuries, with comparison to the Ottawa Knee Rules.
Polytrauma Management β Comprehensive guide to polytrauma and damage control orthopaedics for FRCS exam preparation
Posterior Process Talus Fractures β Comprehensive guide to posterior process talus fractures - Shepherd fracture, Cedell fracture, FHL impingement, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Proximal Humerus Fractures β Comprehensive guide to proximal humerus fractures - Neer classification, blood supply, surgical decision-making, and PROFHER evidence for orthopaedic exam
Proximal Humerus Nonunion & Malunion β Fellowship-level guide to nonunion and malunion of the proximal humerus: the surgical-neck nonunion (Boileau type-3 fracture sequela), the age- and head-viability-driven choice between ORIF with bone graft and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (preserving the tuberosities), and the management of tuberosity/surgical-neck malunion.
Proximal Tibiofibular Joint Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to proximal tibiofibular joint dislocations including Ogden classification, peroneal nerve considerations, and management for orthopaedic examination
Pubic Rami Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Pubic Rami Fractures - Isolated vs Ring injuries, Fragility fractures, and management.
Radial Head Dislocations β Comprehensive guide to Radial Head Dislocations - Congenital vs Traumatic, Monteggia, and Nursemaids
Radial Head Fractures β Comprehensive guide to radial head fractures - Mason classification, surgical indications, safe zone concept, and management of complex instability patterns
Radial Neck Fractures Pediatric β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to pediatric radial neck fractures - classification, reduction techniques, and outcomes
Regan-Morrey Classification of Coronoid Fractures β The Regan-Morrey classification for fractures of the coronoid process of the ulna β the three types, clinical relevance within the terrible triad, and how the system guides fixation.
Region-Specific Compartment Syndrome β Advanced orthopaedic trauma guide to region-specific acute compartment syndrome: leg, forearm, hand, foot, thigh, gluteal compartments, pressure measurement, fasciotomy principles, wound care and missed-diagnosis traps.
Rhabdomyolysis β Comprehensive guide to rhabdomyolysis - CK elevation, myoglobinuria, acute kidney injury, crush injury, compartment syndrome complication, and management for orthopaedic exam
Terrible Triad of the Elbow β Comprehensive guide to terrible triad injuries - elbow dislocation, radial head fracture, coronoid fracture, LCL repair, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Tetanus Prophylaxis β Comprehensive guide to tetanus prophylaxis in orthopaedic surgery - Clostridium tetani, tetanospasmin, tetanus-prone wounds, vaccination status assessment, ADT booster vs TIG indications, and international guideline comparison (CDC, NICE/Green Book, WHO) for fellowship exam
Thoracolumbar Spine Fractures β Comprehensive guide to thoracolumbar fractures - TLICS classification, AO Spine classification, conservative vs surgical management, posterior and anterior approaches for orthopaedic exam
Thumb Base Fractures β Comprehensive guide to fractures of the thumb base for Orthopaedic examination
Thumb UCL Injuries (Gamekeeper's/Skier's Thumb) β Comprehensive guide to ulnar collateral ligament injuries of the thumb MCP joint including Stener lesion, stress testing, and surgical repair for orthopaedic examination
Tibial Malunion β Comprehensive guide to tibial malunion - classification, CORA concept, indications for correction, osteotomy techniques, and outcomes for orthopaedic exam
Tibial Nonunion β Comprehensive guide to Tibial Nonunion - evaluation, classification, and management strategies including exchange nailing, plating, and ring fixation
Tibial Plateau Fractures β Comprehensive guide to tibial plateau fractures for orthopaedic exam - Schatzker classification, three-column concept, soft tissue management, surgical approaches, articular reduction principles, and staged management
Tibial Shaft Fractures β Comprehensive guide to tibial shaft fractures - AO classification, open fracture management, nail vs plate fixation, compartment syndrome, and union considerations for orthopaedic exam
Tibial Spine Fractures β Comprehensive guide to tibial spine fractures - pediatric ACL equivalent, Meyers-McKeever classification, arthroscopic reduction, suture fixation, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Tibial Stress Fractures β Comprehensive guide to tibial stress fractures - anterior cortex high-risk vs posteromedial low-risk, MRI grading, management principles for orthopaedic exam
Tibial Tubercle Fractures β Comprehensive guide to tibial tubercle avulsion fractures including Ogden classification, extensor mechanism injury, and management for orthopaedic examination
Tile / Young-Burgess Classification of Pelvic Ring Injuries β The Tile stability-based (A / B / C) and Young-Burgess mechanism-based (APC / LC / VS / CM) classifications of pelvic ring injuries β how they translate to one another, and how they guide resuscitation and definitive fixation.
Toddler's Fracture β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to toddler's fracture - subtle spiral tibial fracture in young children, clinical diagnosis, X-ray interpretation
Total Talar Dislocation β Comprehensive guide to total talar dislocation - talus completely dislocated from ankle subtalar talonavicular, urgent reduction, AVN risk, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Trapezium Fractures β Comprehensive guide to trapezium fractures - body vs ridge fractures, CMC joint implications, surgical management, and Orthopaedic exam preparation
Trapezoid Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Trapezoid Fractures - Rare carpal injuries with anatomic, diagnostic, and management considerations.
Triquetral Fractures β Comprehensive guide to triquetral fractures - second most common carpal fracture, dorsal chip vs body fractures, diagnosis, management, and Orthopaedic exam preparation
Trochlea Fractures β Comprehensive guide to isolated Trochlea (Laugier) Fractures - diagnosis and management of this rare elbow injury
Tscherne Classification of Closed Soft-Tissue Injury β The Tscherne system for grading the severity of closed soft-tissue injury associated with fractures β grades 0 through III, how it guides timing of definitive fixation, and its role alongside open-fracture classifications.
Vascular Injury With Fracture or Dislocation β Advanced orthopaedic trauma guide to extremity vascular injury associated with fractures and dislocations: hard signs, ABI/API, CTA, reduction, external fixation, temporary shunts, vascular repair and fasciotomy.
Vertebral Compression Fractures β Comprehensive guide to vertebral compression fractures - osteoporotic fractures, pathologic fractures, conservative vs surgical management, vertebroplasty/kyphoplasty for orthopaedic exam
Vertical Shear (VS) Pelvic Injuries β Comprehensive guide to vertical shear pelvic ring injuries including Young-Burgess classification, Tile C instability, and surgical management
Volkmann's Ischemic Contracture β Comprehensive guide to Volkmann's ischemic contracture - late sequela of compartment syndrome, Tsuge classification, claw hand deformity, reconstruction techniques, and prevention for orthopaedic exam
Weber (Danis-Weber) Ankle Fracture Classification β The Danis-Weber classification of fibular ankle fractures by height relative to the syndesmosis β A below (stable), B at (variable), C above (unstable) β and how the letter guides fixation.
Winquist-Hansen Classification of Femoral Comminution β The Winquist-Hansen grading of femoral shaft comminution β types 0 to IV by circumferential cortical contact β and how it guides locked intramedullary nailing, adjunct fixation, and weight-bearing.
AC Joint Injuries in Athletes β Comprehensive sports medicine guide to AC joint injuries - Rockwood classification, return to sport criteria, surgical decision-making in athletes, Type III controversy, hook plate vs CC reconstruction
Achilles Tendinopathy β Comprehensive guide to achilles tendinopathy including insertional and non-insertional types, eccentric exercise protocols, imaging, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination
Acromioclavicular Joint Injuries β Exam-focused guide to acromioclavicular (ACJ) joint injuries: the anatomy of the AC and coracoclavicular ligaments, the Rockwood classification, how to examine and image the joint (including the coracoclavicular distance and Zanca view), and the evidence-based debate over operative versus nonoperative management of low- and high-grade dislocations.
Adductor Strain / Groin Strain β Fellowship-level guide to adductor (groin) strain: the commonest cause of acute groin pain in athletes, usually an adductor longus musculotendinous-junction or enthesis injury from forceful eccentric contraction during cutting and kicking; the Doha groin-pain framework, examination (resisted adduction, squeeze test), grading, the high reinjury rate, and progressive eccentric-strengthening rehabilitation.
Anterior Shoulder Instability β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to anterior shoulder instability - Bankart vs Latarjet decision, bone loss assessment, surgical techniques
Anterolateral Ligament Injury & Lateral Extra-Articular Tenodesis (LET) β Fellowship-level guide to the anterolateral complex of the knee: the anterolateral ligament (ALL) and its role in rotatory (pivot-shift) control, the Segond fracture as its radiographic signature, and the extra-articular augmentation of ACL reconstruction by lateral extra-articular tenodesis (LET) or ALL reconstruction - with the STABILITY-trial evidence, the indications in high-risk patients, and the technique.
Athletic Groin Pain (Sports Hernia/Athletic Pubalgia) β Comprehensive guide to athletic groin pain - Doha classification, adductor-related groin pain, pubic symphysis dysfunction, FAI differential, Copenhagen protocol, and surgical management for orthopaedic exam
Athletic Pubalgia (Sports Hernia) β Comprehensive guide to athletic pubalgia / sports hernia, covering core muscle injury at the rectus abdominisβadductor aponeurosis, differentiation from osteitis pubis and hip FAI, imaging, conservative management, and surgical repair.
Baker's Cyst (Popliteal Cyst) β Comprehensive guide to Baker's cyst - popliteal cyst anatomy, association with knee pathology, clinical presentation, imaging, and management for orthopaedic exam
Bankart Lesions β Comprehensive guide to Bankart lesions - anterior-inferior labral tears with anterior shoulder instability, classification, arthroscopic repair, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Bipartite Patella β Comprehensive exam guide to bipartite patella - the failed-fusion accessory ossicle of the kneecap, the Saupe classification, why most are asymptomatic, how to tell it apart from a fracture, and evidence-based management of the painful superolateral fragment.
Burners and Stingers (Cervical Nerve Root / Brachial Plexus Traction) β Fellowship-level guide to burners and stingers: a transient unilateral upper-limb burning pain, paraesthesia and weakness in collision-sport athletes, from traction, compression or nerve-root injury affecting the upper trunk (C5-C6) of the brachial plexus; the three mechanisms, the crucial rule that bilateral or lower-limb symptoms are NOT a stinger (suspect cervical cord/spine injury), return-to-play criteria and the work-up of recurrent stingers.
Chronic Ankle Instability β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to chronic lateral ankle instability including pathophysiology, assessment, and evidence-based surgical reconstruction
Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome β Comprehensive orthopaedic exam guide to chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) - ICP measurement, fasciotomy techniques, differential diagnosis, and return to sport
Concussion / Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Athletes β Fellowship-level guide to sport-related concussion: a functional traumatic brain injury from biomechanical forces causing transient neurological impairment (often without loss of consciousness and with normal structural imaging); the 'if in doubt, sit them out' rule with no same-day return, sideline and office assessment (SCAT6), the graduated return-to-sport and return-to-learn strategies, red flags for structural injury, and the risks of second-impact syndrome and repeated injury.
Distal Biceps Rupture β Comprehensive guide to distal biceps tendon rupture for FRCS examination
Distal Clavicle Osteolysis β A sports-medicine and shoulder-focused guide to distal clavicle osteolysis (weightlifter's shoulder): the anatomy of the acromioclavicular joint, the repetitive-stress pathophysiology, how it presents and is examined, the characteristic radiographic and MRI findings, non-operative and operative management, and the key differential diagnoses that must not be missed.
Elbow Medial Ulnar Collateral Ligament (UCL) Injury (Tommy John) β Fellowship-level guide to ulnar collateral ligament injury of the elbow in throwing athletes: the valgus-overload mechanism, the anterior-bundle anatomy, examination (moving valgus stress test), MRI diagnosis, non-operative versus reconstruction (Tommy John) decision-making, and return-to-play outcomes.
Exertional Heat Illness / Heat Stroke β Fellowship-level guide to exertional heat illness and exertional heat stroke (EHS) - a life-threatening emergency in athletes caused by strenuous activity producing severe hyperthermia (core temperature over ~40 C) with central nervous system dysfunction - covering the spectrum (cramps, exhaustion, heat stroke), the critical recognition (collapsed/confused athlete, hot), and the management principle of immediate aggressive cooling ('cool first, transport second' - cold-water immersion) to prevent multi-organ failure and death.
External Impingement of the Shoulder β Comprehensive guide to external shoulder impingement - subacromial impingement, Neer classification, diagnosis, and treatment for orthopaedic examination
Femoral Neck Stress Fracture β Exam-focused guide to femoral neck stress fractures in athletes and military recruits: how to classify tension versus compression side fractures using the Fullerton system, why plain X-rays are frequently normal and MRI is essential, why a tension-side fracture is an orthopaedic emergency requiring urgent fixation, and how to prevent the catastrophic complication of avascular necrosis.
Femoroacetabular Impingement (FAI) β Comprehensive guide to femoroacetabular impingement - CAM, pincer, mixed morphology, alpha angle, FADIR test, hip arthroscopy, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Fifth Metatarsal Stress Fractures β Comprehensive guide to fifth metatarsal stress fractures including Jones fracture, zone classification, surgical vs conservative management, and return to sport for orthopaedic exam preparation
Glenohumeral Internal Rotation Deficit (GIRD) β Fellowship-level guide to GIRD in the throwing athlete: loss of glenohumeral internal rotation, the physiologic (humeral retroversion) versus pathologic (posterior capsular/rotator-cuff tightness) causes, why total rotational motion matters more than absolute IR loss, the link to internal impingement and SLAP/cuff lesions, and management led by posterior capsular stretching.
Glenoid & Bipolar Bone Loss Assessment in Shoulder Instability (Glenoid Track) β Fellowship-level guide to bone-loss assessment in anterior shoulder instability: quantifying glenoid bone loss (en-face 3D CT, the reference standard, with 3D MRI a validated alternative), the bipolar concept of combined glenoid and Hill-Sachs loss, the glenoid-track method for on-track versus off-track Hill-Sachs lesions, and how the measurements drive the choice between arthroscopic Bankart, remplissage and bony procedures (Latarjet).
Gluteal Tendon Tears (Hip Abductor Tears) β Surgical-focused guide to gluteus medius and minimus tendon tears - the rotator cuff of the hip. Covers anatomy, tear classification, MRI grading, fatty infiltration, endoscopic versus open repair, tendon transfer and reconstruction, abductor deficiency after total hip arthroplasty, and fellowship exam preparation.
Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) - gluteal tendinopathy, trochanteric bursitis, diagnosis, injection technique, rehabilitation, and exam preparation for orthopaedic fellowship examinations
Hamstring Injuries β Comprehensive guide to hamstring muscle injuries - proximal avulsion, mid-substance tears, grading, surgical repair indications, Nordic hamstring exercises, and return to sport criteria for orthopaedic exam
Hill-Sachs Lesions β Comprehensive guide to Hill-Sachs lesions - pathology, glenoid track concept, and management strategies including Remplissage and Latarjet
Hip Arthroscopy β Comprehensive guide to hip arthroscopy - femoroacetabular impingement, labral tears, portal anatomy, traction requirements, cam and pincer morphology, and rehabilitation for orthopaedic exam preparation
Hip Flexor Strains β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to iliopsoas and rectus femoris injuries including classification, diagnosis, and evidence-based management
Hip Pointer Injuries β Comprehensive guide to hip pointer injuries - iliac crest contusion diagnosis, imaging, treatment protocols, and return to sport criteria for orthopaedic exam preparation
Idiopathic Chondromalacia Patellae β Fellowship-level guide to chondromalacia patellae: softening (and progressive fibrillation, fissuring and erosion) of the patellar articular cartilage causing anterior knee pain, especially in young adults; the Outerbridge arthroscopic grading, why the term is descriptive rather than a single disease, the overlap with patellofemoral pain, examination (Clarke's sign), and the predominantly conservative management.
Iliotibial Band Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to iliotibial band syndrome - lateral knee pain in runners, friction zone biomechanics, hip abductor weakness, activity modification, and return to running protocol for orthopaedic exam
Internal Impingement of the Shoulder β Comprehensive guide to internal impingement - posterosuperior labrum and rotator cuff contact in ABER position, GIRD, throwing athletes, and surgical management for orthopaedic exam
Kellgren-Lawrence Grading of Osteoarthritis β The Kellgren-Lawrence radiographic grading system for osteoarthritis severity β the five grades, radiographic features, and why it remains the reference standard despite its limitations.
Knee Arthrofibrosis β Post-surgical knee stiffness from excessive scar - arthrofibrosis after TKA and ACL reconstruction (cyclops lesion), diagnosis, prevention and management for orthopaedic exams
Knee Dislocation Management β Comprehensive guide to acute knee dislocation management, including vascular assessment, reduction techniques, and multiligamentous injury repair
Knee Plica Syndrome (Synovial Plicae) β Fellowship-level guide to knee plica syndrome: symptomatic synovial plicae (embryological synovial folds), most commonly the medial (mediopatellar) plica, which when thickened and inflamed snaps over the medial femoral condyle causing anteromedial knee pain, clicking and pseudo-locking; the types of plica, the clinical and MRI diagnosis, and conservative-first management with arthroscopic resection for refractory cases.
Lateral Ankle Sprains β Comprehensive guide to lateral ankle ligament injuries including acute management, chronic instability, and surgical reconstruction techniques
Lateral Collateral Ligament (LCL) Injuries β Comprehensive guide to LCL injuries - anatomy, Fanelli classification, varus stress testing, isolated vs combined injuries, and evidence-based surgical vs conservative management for orthopaedic exam preparation
Lateral Epicondylitis (Tennis Elbow) β Comprehensive guide to lateral epicondylitis - ECRB pathology, Nirschl classification, conservative management, PRP evidence, and surgical release techniques for orthopaedic exam
Lateral Patellar Compression Syndrome (Excessive Lateral Pressure Syndrome) β Fellowship-level guide to lateral patellar compression syndrome / excessive lateral pressure syndrome (ELPS): a tight lateral retinaculum causing patellar TILT and excessive lateral patellofemoral pressure with anterior knee pain but WITHOUT instability; the patellar tilt test, the radiographic angles (patellar tilt angle, lateral patellofemoral angle) on skyline views, conservative-first management, and the role - and important limits - of lateral retinacular release.
Little League Shoulder β Comprehensive guide to proximal humeral epiphysiolysis - pathology, clinical presentation, radiographic findings, and management of this pediatric overuse injury
Long Head of Biceps Tendon Pathology β Comprehensive guide to long head of biceps pathology - SLAP lesions, biceps tendinitis, instability, examination tests, imaging, tenotomy vs tenodesis decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Medial Ankle Sprains β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to deltoid ligament injuries including anatomy, classification, diagnosis, and evidence-based management
Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to MCL injuries - grading, non-operative vs surgery, combined injuries
Medial Epicondylitis (Golfer's Elbow) β Comprehensive guide to medial epicondylitis - flexor-pronator origin pathology, golfer's elbow test, conservative and surgical management, and ulnar nerve involvement for orthopaedic exam
Meniscal Ramp Lesions β Comprehensive guide to meniscal ramp lesions - posterior meniscocapsular separation, ACL association, diagnosis, and repair techniques for orthopaedic exam
Rotator Cuff Tears β Comprehensive guide to rotator cuff tears - anatomy, pathophysiology, classification, clinical assessment, imaging, surgical repair techniques, and rehabilitation for orthopaedic exam
SCAPULAR DYSKINESIS β Comprehensive guide to Scapular Dyskinesis, including Kibler classification, SICK scapula syndrome, and kinetic chain rehabilitation.
Scapular Winging β Comprehensive guide to medial and lateral scapular winging - long thoracic nerve, spinal accessory nerve, serratus anterior and trapezius palsy, diagnosis and surgical reconstruction.
Semimembranosus Tendinopathy β Fellowship-level guide to semimembranosus tendinopathy - an overuse tendinopathy of the distal semimembranosus at its insertion on the posteromedial tibia, a cause of chronic posteromedial knee pain - covering its presentation (localised posteromedial pain/tenderness worse on resisted knee flexion, often in running/cutting athletes), the differential within the posteromedial corner (medial meniscus, pes anserine, popliteal cyst), the role of ultrasound/MRI, and a non-operative-first management.
SLAP Tears β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to SLAP tears - classification, Type II critical, biceps tenotomy vs tenodesis decision
Snapping Hip Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Coxa Saltans - Internal, External, and Intra-articular causes, diagnosis, and management
Snapping Scapula Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to snapping scapula syndrome and scapulothoracic bursitis - scapulothoracic anatomy, osseous and soft-tissue causes, examination, CT imaging, the role of injections, and arthroscopic bursectomy with superomedial angle resection for orthopaedic examination
Snapping Triceps Syndrome β Exam-focused guide to snapping triceps syndrome: the dislocating medial triceps head that snaps over the medial epicondyle, often dragging the ulnar nerve with it. Covers anatomy, classification, dynamic ultrasound diagnosis, non-operative and operative management, and the key association with ulnar neuropathy.
Femoral Neck Stress Fractures β Comprehensive guide to femoral neck stress fractures - tension vs compression side, military and athletic populations, MRI diagnosis, and surgical decision-making for Orthopaedic orthopaedic exam
Stress Fractures Overview β Comprehensive guide to stress fractures in athletes and at-risk populations: fatigue versus insufficiency fractures, high-risk versus low-risk sites, RED-S, imaging, and evidence-based load management.
Subacromial Impingement Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to subacromial impingement syndrome - anatomy, pathophysiology, clinical assessment, conservative and surgical management for Orthopaedic exam preparation
Subscapularis Tears β Comprehensive guide to subscapularis tears - diagnosis, classification, repair techniques, and outcomes for orthopaedic examination
Sudden Cardiac Death & Cardiac Conditions in Athletes / Pre-Participation Screening β Fellowship-level guide to sudden cardiac death (SCD) in athletes - the leading medical cause of death in sport - covering the underlying cardiac conditions (hypertrophic and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathies, congenital coronary anomalies, channelopathies, and acquired causes), the 'athlete's heart' versus disease 'grey zone', the role and controversies of pre-participation screening (history/examination +/- ECG), and the critical importance of emergency action plans and on-site automated external defibrillators.
Suprascapular Neuropathy β Comprehensive guide to suprascapular neuropathy including notch anatomy, paralabral cyst compression, infraspinatus atrophy, EMG diagnosis, and arthroscopic decompression.
Female Athlete Triad / RED-S β Fellowship-level guide to the Female Athlete Triad and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S): low energy availability as the central driver, the triad of low energy availability, menstrual dysfunction and low bone mineral density (broadened by RED-S to many body systems and both sexes), the orthopaedic consequence of bone stress injuries, screening (LEAF-Q/LEAM-Q, DXA), and multidisciplinary management restoring energy availability.
Medial Patellofemoral Ligament (MPFL) Injury β Exam-focused guide to the primary soft-tissue restraint to lateral patellar translation: anatomy and isometry, injury patterns in first-time and recurrent dislocation, MRI diagnosis of femoral versus patellar avulsion, non-operative versus operative thresholds, anatomic reconstruction technique, and the key complications and failure modes.
Meniscus Tears β Comprehensive guide to meniscal tears - anatomy, ISAKOS classification, clinical tests (McMurray, Thessaly), arthroscopic repair vs meniscectomy, and evidence-based management for orthopaedic exam preparation
Multidirectional Instability (MDI) β Comprehensive examination guide to multidirectional shoulder instability including assessment, classification, conservative management, and surgical techniques with evidence-based treatment algorithms
Olecranon Stress Fracture β Fellowship-level guide to olecranon stress fracture: an overuse injury of throwing athletes (and gymnasts) driven by valgus extension overload, presenting with posterior elbow pain on extension; the adolescent persistent-olecranon-physis pattern versus the adult oblique stress line, the role of MRI when radiographs are normal, the link to valgus instability/UCL, and rest versus surgical fixation to return to play.
Os Acromiale β Comprehensive guide to os acromiale - unfused acromial ossification centre causing shoulder pain and impingement - anatomy, classification, diagnosis on axillary view, and conservative vs surgical management for Orthopaedic exam preparation
Osteitis Pubis (Pubic Symphysis Stress) β Fellowship-level guide to osteitis pubis: a chronic overuse inflammatory condition of the pubic symphysis from repetitive adductor/rectus-abdominis shear in kicking and pivoting athletes, presenting with central groin/symphyseal pain; its place in the athletic pubalgia/groin-pain spectrum, the radiographic and MRI findings (symphyseal sclerosis, erosion, bone-marrow oedema), and predominantly conservative management.
Osteochondritis Dissecans of the Knee β Comprehensive guide to OCD of the knee - juvenile vs adult, stable vs unstable, MFC location, and treatment for orthopaedic exam
Outerbridge Classification of Chondral Lesions β The Outerbridge grading system for articular cartilage lesions seen at knee arthroscopy β grades 0 through IV, the modified ICRS variants, and how the grade guides cartilage management.
Patellar Height Abnormalities (Patella Alta and Baja) β Exam-focused guide to patellar height: the Insall-Salvati, Caton-Deschamps, and Blackburne-Peel ratios on the lateral radiograph; how patella alta drives instability and baja restricts flexion; the causes (congenital, post-surgical, post-traumatic); when to intervene surgically; and the viva approach the examiner expects.
Pellegrini-Stieda Lesion β Exam-focused guide to the Pellegrini-Stieda lesion: post-traumatic calcification or ossification at the femoral attachment of the medial collateral ligament, its characteristic radiographic appearance, clinical presentation with medial knee pain and stiffness, conservative and surgical management, and the key exam points including differential diagnosis and classification.
Pelvic/Hip Apophyseal Avulsion Fractures in Athletes β Fellowship-level guide to pelvic and hip apophyseal avulsion fractures in adolescent athletes: in the skeletally immature, the unfused apophysis is the weak link, so a forceful eccentric muscle contraction avulses the apophysis rather than tearing the muscle. Covers the site-muscle map (ASIS, AIIS, ischial tuberosity, lesser trochanter, iliac crest, pubis), the radiographic diagnosis, and predominantly non-operative management with surgery for large displacement.
Performance-Enhancing Drugs (Anabolic Steroids / Stimulants) in Sport β Fellowship-level guide to performance- and appearance-enhancing drugs ('doping') in sport - principally anabolic-androgenic steroids and stimulants (also growth hormone, diuretics and supplements) - covering their effects and the wide range of serious adverse effects (cardiovascular, hepatic, renal, endocrine/psychiatric, and musculoskeletal - notably tendon rupture), the orthopaedic relevance of recognising the doping athlete, and the role of anti-doping (WADA) and education/prevention.
Pes Anserine Bursitis β Comprehensive guide to pes anserine bursitis - anatomy, clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, injection technique, rehabilitation, and exam preparation for orthopaedic fellowship examinations
Phases of Throwing / Throwing Biomechanics β Fellowship-level guide to the biomechanics of overhead throwing (the pitching cycle) - the six phases (wind-up, stride/early cocking, late cocking, acceleration, deceleration, follow-through), the kinetic chain that transfers energy from the legs and trunk to the arm, and the enormous valgus and distraction loads generated at the shoulder and elbow during late cocking and acceleration - explaining why specific injuries (UCL, SLAP/internal impingement, GIRD) occur and how mechanics relate to injury risk and prevention.
Popliteal Artery Entrapment Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to popliteal artery entrapment syndrome (PAES): anomalous musculo-arterial relationships in young athletes, Love-Whelan classification, provocative pulse examination, imaging, and surgical release.
Prepatellar Bursitis (Housemaid's Knee) β Fellowship-level guide to prepatellar bursitis: inflammation of the superficial bursa in front of the patella from chronic kneeling microtrauma (or trauma, crystal/inflammatory disease, or infection), how to distinguish a superficial bursitis from a true knee effusion and - critically - septic from non-septic bursitis, the role of aspiration (and when NOT to aspirate), and management by type.
Proximal Hamstring Avulsion β Comprehensive guide to ischial tuberosity hamstring avulsion injuries: anatomy, MRI grading, Wood classification, sciatic nerve proximity, and operative vs conservative management.
Proximal Hamstring Injuries β Comprehensive guide to Proximal Hamstring Avulsions and Tendinopathy - Diagnosis, Classification, and Management
Quadriceps Contusions β Comprehensive guide to quadriceps contusions - classification, myositis ossificans prevention, treatment protocols, and return to sport criteria for orthopaedic exam preparation
Quadriceps Tendinitis β Comprehensive guide to Quadriceps Tendinopathy - anatomy, clinical assessment, differential diagnosis, and management strategies for suprapatellar pain
Quadrilateral Space Syndrome β Evidence-based guide to quadrilateral (quadrangular) space syndrome - neurogenic and vascular axillary nerve and posterior circumflex humeral artery compression in the overhead athlete, with diagnosis, imaging, and decompression for FRACS and FRCS examination.
Rectus Femoris Strain β Fellowship-level guide to rectus femoris strain - a common quadriceps muscle injury in kicking and sprinting athletes - covering the distinction between the typical distal muscle-tendon-junction strain and the characteristic proximal INTRASUBSTANCE tear at the indirect (deep) head's intramuscular tendon (which forms an anterior-thigh mass that mimics a tumour), the role of MRI, and management (predominantly non-operative, with surgery reserved for selected cases).
Return to Sport Criteria β Evidence-based principles and criteria for return to sport after orthopedic injury/surgery for FRCS exam preparation
REVERSE HILL-SACHS LESIONS β Comprehensive guide to Reverse Hill-Sachs lesions, including classification, detailed management algorithm, and surgical options like the Modified McLaughlin procedure.
Rib Stress Fracture β Fellowship-level guide to the rib stress fracture - an overuse injury of the ribs from repetitive loading, classically in ROWERS (and also in throwing, golf, and back-pack/load carriage), presenting with localised activity-related chest-wall pain - covering the at-risk sites (posterolateral ribs in rowers; first rib in throwers), the contributory factors (training load, low bone density/energy availability), the diagnosis (bone scan/MRI when radiographs are negative), and a predominantly non-operative, load-managed recovery.
Triceps Tendon Rupture β Comprehensive FRACS/FRCS guide to triceps tendon rupture: fleck sign, partial vs complete tears, transosseous vs suture-anchor repair, and outcomes
Turf Toe β Comprehensive guide to first MTP joint plantar plate hyperextension injury - mechanism, Anderson grading, MRI assessment, conservative vs surgical management for orthopaedic exam
Adult Hip Dysplasia β Comprehensive guide to adult developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) - diagnosis, classification, joint-preserving surgery, and arthroplasty considerations
Allograft-Prosthetic Composite (APC) Reconstruction β Fellowship-level guide to allograft-prosthetic composite (APC) reconstruction: combining a structural bulk allograft (restoring bone stock and providing soft-tissue/tendon reattachment) with a prosthesis (providing the joint surface) for massive segmental bone loss after tumour resection, failed revision arthroplasty or periprosthetic bone loss; the advantages over a megaprosthesis (bone stock, soft-tissue attachment), the site-specific uses, and the allograft-related complications (nonunion, resorption, fracture, infection).
Ankle Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to ankle osteoarthritis including post-traumatic etiology, conservative management, ankle arthrodesis, total ankle replacement, and Orthopaedic examination preparation
Ankle Arthrodesis β Ankle fusion for end-stage ankle arthritis - indications, optimal position, open vs arthroscopic technique, and outcomes
Avascular Necrosis of the Hip β Comprehensive guide to AVN of the femoral head: pathophysiology, staging systems (Ficat, Steinberg), joint-preserving vs arthroplasty approaches, and contemporary management strategies
Avascular Necrosis of the Humeral Head β Comprehensive guide to etiology, staging, and management of humeral head AVN including core decompression, biological treatments, and arthroplasty decision-making
Blood Supply of the Hip β Detailed anatomy of the femoral head vascularity, including the medial femoral circumflex artery, retinacular vessels, and clinical implications for AVN.
Brooker Classification of Heterotopic Ossification β The Brooker grading system for heterotopic ossification after total hip arthroplasty β four grades based on AP radiographic appearance, guiding prophylaxis decisions and surgical excision timing.
Chiari Pelvic Osteotomy β Comprehensive exam guide to the Chiari medial displacement pelvic osteotomy as a salvage procedure for hip dysplasia and subluxation with incongruent joints β mechanism of medialisation and capsular fibrocartilage metaplasia, indications versus periacetabular osteotomy, surgical technique including iliac osteotomy from sciatic notch to AIIS, complications including sciatic nerve injury and femoral nerve palsy, evidence-based long-term outcomes, and exam-level viva preparation for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Crowe Classification of Developmental Hip Dysplasia β The Crowe classification grades developmental dysplasia of the hip by the percentage of proximal femoral head migration β the four grades, how to measure them on a radiograph, and what each grade means for total hip arthroplasty planning.
Cyclops Lesion β Comprehensive guide to cyclops lesion of the knee following ACL reconstruction, including pathophysiology, clinical assessment, MRI features, and arthroscopic excision.
Dorr Classification of Femoral Bone Morphology β The Dorr classification (Type A champagne-flute, Type B intermediate, Type C stovepipe) of proximal femoral bone quality β cortical morphology, canal flare index, and how it guides cementless versus cemented femoral stem selection in total hip arthroplasty.
Elbow Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to elbow osteoarthritis including post-traumatic etiology, rheumatoid arthritis, conservative management, surgical options, and outcomes
Femoral Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level anatomy of the femoral nerve: L2-L4 origin, course through the iliopsoas groove and under the inguinal ligament (NAVEL), quadriceps and saphenous supply, and the injury patterns in hip and pelvic surgery.
Ficat-Arlet Staging of Femoral Head Osteonecrosis β The Ficat-Arlet classification for avascular necrosis of the femoral head β the four radiographic stages from preradiographic disease to collapse with secondary arthrosis, the crescent sign, and how staging directs the choice between core decompression, osteotomy, and arthroplasty.
Girdlestone Procedure (Excision Arthroplasty) β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to Girdlestone procedure including indications, surgical technique, and outcomes for hip excision arthroplasty
Gluteus Medius Anatomy β Comprehensive anatomy of the Gluteus Medius, its role as the primary hip abductor, Trendelenburg sign, and surgical significance.
Gruen Zones (Femoral) and DeLee-Charnley Zones (Acetabular) β Standardised radiographic zones for describing periprosthetic lucency, osteolysis, and loosening around total hip arthroplasty components β the seven femoral Gruen zones, three acetabular DeLee-Charnley zones, and their clinical significance.
Hartofilakidis Classification of Congenital Hip Disease in Adults β The Hartofilakidis classification categorises adult congenital hip disease into three types β dysplasia, low dislocation, and high dislocation β guiding acetabular reconstruction and femoral management during total hip arthroplasty.
High Tibial Osteotomy β Comprehensive exam guide to high tibial osteotomy (HTO) for medial compartment knee osteoarthritis with varus malalignment - opening wedge versus closing wedge, Coventry and Maquet principles, coronal alignment and weight-bearing line planning, indications in the young active patient, fixation methods, complications including peroneal nerve injury and nonunion, conversion to TKA, and evidence-based outcomes for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Hip Arthrodesis β Indications, surgical technique, and outcomes of hip fusion with focus on conversion to total hip arthroplasty
Hip Labral Tears β Comprehensive guide to hip labral tears diagnosis and management for FRCS exam preparation
Hip Osteoarthritis β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to hip OA - diagnosis, conservative treatment, THA indications
Hip Resurfacing Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to hip resurfacing arthroplasty - indications, metal-on-metal complications, ALVAL, pseudotumor, femoral neck fracture risk, and current role in modern hip surgery for orthopaedic exam
Interprosthetic Femoral Fracture β Fellowship-level guide to the interprosthetic femoral fracture - a fracture of the femoral shaft between an ipsilateral hip implant and a knee implant: why the inter-implant bone is a stress riser (short inter-stem distance, osteoporosis), how implant stability and fracture location drive treatment (spanning locked plating, revision arthroplasty, or distal/total femoral replacement), and the high reoperation and infection rates.
Ischiofemoral Impingement β Comprehensive guide to ischiofemoral impingement including pathoanatomy, MRI diagnosis of quadratus femoris space narrowing, and management from conservative care to endoscopic decompression.
Knee Arthrodesis β Comprehensive guide to knee arthrodesis (fusion) - indications, surgical technique, positioning, fixation options, and rehabilitation for this salvage procedure
Knee Osteoarthritis β Comprehensive guide to knee osteoarthritis including pathophysiology, classification systems, non-operative and surgical management strategies for Orthopaedic exam preparation
Rotator Cuff Arthropathy β Comprehensive guide to Cuff Tear Arthropathy, covering pathophysiology (Acetabularization), Seebauer classification, and Reverse TSA management.
Sartorius Anatomy β Comprehensive anatomy of the Sartorius muscle, 'The Tailor's Muscle', including its relations, clinical significance in Pes Anserine Bursitis, and surgical relevance.
Sciatic Nerve Anatomy β Comprehensive guide to the anatomy, clinical assessment, and management of the Sciatic Nerve, including Piriformis relations and injection safety
Shoulder Arthrodesis β Comprehensive guide to shoulder arthrodesis - salvage procedure for irreparable rotator cuff, brachial plexus injury, failed arthroplasty, and chronic infection with bone loss
Shoulder Arthroplasty Anatomy β Comprehensive surgical anatomy for shoulder arthroplasty including neurovascular structures at risk, deltopectoral approach, rotator cuff anatomy, and critical anatomical relationships
Shoulder Arthroplasty Complications β Comprehensive guide to shoulder arthroplasty complications including instability, infection, glenoid loosening, nerve injury, and management strategies
Shoulder Hemiarthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to shoulder hemiarthroplasty for proximal humerus fractures, avascular necrosis, and glenohumeral arthritis - indications, surgical technique, and outcomes
Shoulder Osteoarthritis β Comprehensive guide to Glenohumeral Osteoarthritis, including pathophysiology, classification, and management strategies.
Spontaneous Osteonecrosis of the Knee (SPONK/SONK) β Comprehensive guide to spontaneous osteonecrosis of the knee including subchondral insufficiency fracture hypothesis, MRI staging, differential diagnosis, and decision-making between conservative care, unloading osteotomy and unicompartmental arthroplasty.
Steinberg (University of Pennsylvania) Classification of Osteonecrosis β The Steinberg staging system for femoral head osteonecrosis β stages 0 to VI with MRI-based quantification of head involvement, prognostic thresholds for collapse, and how it compares to Ficat and ARCO classifications.
Surgical Hip Dislocation (Ganz Trochanteric Flip) β Comprehensive exam guide to Ganz safe surgical dislocation of the hip via trochanteric flip osteotomy preserving the medial femoral circumflex artery - indications including FAI, intra-articular pathology, AVN and acetabular fractures, retinacular vessel anatomy and protection, step-by-step surgical technique, complications including AVN and trochanteric nonunion, evidence-based outcomes for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Alignment Philosophies in TKA: Mechanical, Kinematic and Functional β Fellowship-level guide to total knee arthroplasty alignment: mechanical, anatomic, kinematic, restricted kinematic and functional alignment, constitutional alignment, the CPAK classification, and what the randomised evidence actually shows.
Aseptic Loosening in Total Hip Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to aseptic loosening after THA - particle disease, osteolysis, Gruen zones, DeLee/Charnley classification, differentiating from infection, and revision planning for orthopaedic exam
Dual Mobility Total Hip Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to dual mobility THA - Bousquet design, biomechanics, indications for instability prevention, intraprosthetic dislocation, outcomes, and AOANJRR data
Meniscal Repair β Comprehensive guide to meniscal repair techniques and indications for FRCS exam preparation
Meniscal Root Tears β Detailed guide to posterior meniscal root tears, biomechanics, diagnosis (Ghost Sign), and management strategies.
Meniscal Transplantation β Comprehensive guide to meniscal allograft transplantation for FRCS exam preparation
Metal-on-Metal Hip Complications β Comprehensive guide to adverse local tissue reactions, pseudotumors, surveillance, and revision strategies for metal-on-metal hip arthroplasty
Obturator Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level anatomy of the obturator nerve: L2-L4 origin, course along the pelvic wall through the obturator canal, adductor motor supply, medial thigh sensation, and injury patterns including the Howship-Romberg sign.
Osteochondral Defects of the Knee β Comprehensive guide to osteochondral defects and cartilage restoration of the knee for FRCS exam preparation
Paprosky Classification of Acetabular and Femoral Bone Loss β The Paprosky system for grading acetabular and femoral bone deficiency in revision total hip arthroplasty β defect types, reconstruction algorithm, and implant selection.
Patellofemoral Arthroplasty β Patient selection, surgical technique, and outcomes for isolated patellofemoral joint replacement in the treatment of patellofemoral arthritis
Periacetabular Osteotomy (Ganz/Bernese PAO) β Comprehensive exam guide to Bernese periacetabular osteotomy for symptomatic acetabular dysplasia in the young adult - indications, correction targets (LCEA, Tonnis angle, anterior coverage), modified Smith-Petersen and rectus-sparing approach, the four osteotomy cuts, complications (LFCN injury, sciatic nerve, nonunion, AVN, intra-articular extension), outcomes and conversion to THA for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Periprosthetic Fractures Around Total Hip Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to periprosthetic femoral and acetabular fractures following THA, including Vancouver classification, surgical management strategies, and revision techniques for Orthopaedic examination
Periprosthetic Joint Infection β Comprehensive guide to periprosthetic joint infection following hip and knee arthroplasty, covering MSIS and EBJIS diagnostic criteria, serum and synovial fluid markers, differentiation of acute versus chronic presentations, and management options including DAIR, one-stage and two-stage revision.
Periprosthetic Joint Infection After THA β Comprehensive guide to periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) diagnosis, MSIS/ICM criteria, DAIR, one-stage and two-stage revision for orthopaedic exam
Periprosthetic Knee Fracture (around Stemmed/Revision Implants) β Fellowship-level guide to periprosthetic fractures around a total knee arthroplasty - most commonly the supracondylar distal femur: the risk factors (anterior femoral notching, osteoporosis, loose/revision stemmed implants), the Su and Lewis-Rorabeck classifications, the fixation-versus-replacement decision driven by component fixation and distal bone stock (locked plating vs retrograde nail vs distal femoral replacement), and the ORIF-versus-DFR trade-offs - with a note on interprosthetic fractures.
Piriformis Anatomy β Detailed anatomy of the Piriformis muscle, its critical relationship with the Sciatic Nerve, and clinical significance in Piriformis Syndrome.
Posteromedial Corner Knee Injury β Comprehensive guide to posteromedial corner injuries of the knee, including sMCL, dMCL, POL and semimembranosus anatomy, anteromedial rotatory instability, association with ACL, examination, MRI, and repair versus reconstruction.
Preoperative Optimization & Risk Stratification for Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to optimising modifiable risk factors before hip and knee arthroplasty - obesity, malnutrition, diabetes, anaemia, smoking, opioids, Staph decolonisation and dental health - and the shift from 'clearance' to optimization.
Protrusio Acetabuli β Exam-focused guide to protrusio acetabuli: what it is, the difference between primary (idiopathic) and secondary protrusio, the underlying conditions to look for, how it is diagnosed and measured on an AP pelvis radiograph (the ilioischial or Kohler line and the centre-edge angle), and how it is managed - from observation and osteotomy in the young hip to total hip arthroplasty with restoration of the hip centre and bone grafting of the medial defect.
Radial Head Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to radial head arthroplasty - indications for unreconstructable fractures, terrible triad management, surgical technique with PIN protection, sizing principles, and outcomes
Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to reverse total shoulder arthroplasty - indications, Grammont principles, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes for rotator cuff arthropathy and complex shoulder pathology
Revision Shoulder Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to revision shoulder arthroplasty including indications, bone loss classification, surgical techniques, and outcomes for failed shoulder replacements
Revision THA Bone Loss and Reconstruction β Advanced orthopaedic guide to revision total hip arthroplasty bone loss and reconstruction: pre-operative workup, Paprosky classification, acetabular reconstruction, pelvic discontinuity, femoral fixation strategy, extended trochanteric osteotomy and complications.
Revision TKA Bone Loss, Cones and Sleeves β Advanced orthopaedic guide to revision total knee arthroplasty bone loss, including AORI classification, defect mapping, cement, screws, augments, stems, metaphyseal cones, sleeves, rotating hinge indications, operative sequence and complications.
Revision Total Hip Arthroplasty β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to revision THA: indications, bone defect classification, reconstruction techniques, and outcomes
Revision Total Knee Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to revision TKA including indications, AORI bone loss classification, constraint selection, and surgical techniques for failed knee arthroplasty.
Robotic-Assisted and Computer-Navigated Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to robotic and computer-navigated hip and knee arthroplasty: system taxonomy, the evidence on alignment accuracy versus clinical outcomes, limitations, cost, and the exam debate.
THA Heterotopic Ossification β Comprehensive guide to heterotopic ossification after total hip arthroplasty including classification, prevention strategies, and management
THA Leg Length Discrepancy β Assessment, prevention, and management of leg length discrepancy in total hip arthroplasty - a critical complication affecting patient satisfaction and outcomes
THA Neurovascular Injury β Prevention, recognition, and management of neurovascular complications in total hip arthroplasty
THA Templating and Preoperative Planning β Advanced orthopaedic guide to total hip arthroplasty templating and preoperative planning, including radiograph requirements, digital templating, acetabular and femoral planning, leg length and offset restoration, complex cases, pitfalls and evidence.
THA Wear and Osteolysis β Comprehensive guide to polyethylene wear, particle disease, osteolysis mechanisms, HXLPE benefits, surveillance strategies, and management of established osteolysis in total hip arthroplasty
The Hip-Spine Relationship in Total Hip Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to spinopelvic mobility and the hip-spine relationship in THA: spinopelvic parameters, why the stiff/fused spine raises dislocation risk, the Hip-Spine Classification, functional cup targets, and dual mobility.
TKA Alignment Options β Mechanical, kinematic, and restricted kinematic alignment philosophies in total knee arthroplasty - evolution from traditional to patient-specific approaches
TKA Aseptic Loosening β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to aseptic loosening of total knee arthroplasty including pathophysiology, diagnosis, and revision strategies
TKA Balancing, Gaps and Instability β Advanced orthopaedic guide to total knee arthroplasty balancing and instability: gap mechanics, clinical examination, imaging, varus and valgus releases, flexion instability, mid-flexion instability and revision constraint selection.
TKA Cruciate Retention vs Substitution β Comprehensive guide to cruciate retaining (CR) and posterior stabilized (PS) total knee arthroplasty design principles, biomechanics, indications, and outcomes
TKA Extensor Mechanism Failure β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to extensor mechanism disruption after total knee arthroplasty including patellar tendon rupture, quadriceps rupture, and management strategies
TKA Implant Design β Comprehensive overview of total knee arthroplasty implant design principles, component options, polyethylene types, constraint levels, and evolution of modern knee replacement systems
TKA Neurovascular Injury β Recognition and management of neurovascular complications following total knee arthroplasty including common peroneal nerve injury and vascular injuries
TKA PATELLAR COMPLICATIONS β Comprehensive guide to patellar complications after Total Knee Arthroplasty including fracture, instability, clunk syndrome, and loosening.
TKA Periprosthetic Fractures β Comprehensive guide to periprosthetic fractures around total knee arthroplasty - classification, management algorithms, and surgical techniques
TKA Periprosthetic Joint Infection β Comprehensive guide to diagnosis using MSIS criteria, management algorithm including DAIR vs 2-stage revision, and prevention strategies for periprosthetic joint infection following total knee arthroplasty
TKA Stiffness and Arthrofibrosis β Comprehensive guide to prevention, diagnosis, and management of post-TKA stiffness including classification, manipulation timing, and surgical revision strategies
TKA Surgical Approaches β Comprehensive guide to medial parapatellar, subvastus, midvastus, and lateral approaches for total knee arthroplasty including indications, technique, and complications
TKA Wound Complications β Prevention and management of wound complications after total knee arthroplasty including superficial infections, dehiscence, and wound healing problems
Tonnis Grade of Hip Osteoarthritis β The Tonnis radiographic grading system for hip osteoarthritis β grades 0 to 3, the four assessed parameters (sclerosis, joint-space narrowing, subchondral cysts, femoral head deformity), and how the grade guides joint-preserving versus replacement decisions.
Total Ankle Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to total ankle arthroplasty including indications, patient selection, surgical technique, and outcomes compared to ankle arthrodesis
Total Elbow Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to total elbow arthroplasty - indications, implant design, surgical technique, rehabilitation, and complications for orthopaedic exam
Total Hip Arthroplasty Bearing Surfaces β Comprehensive guide to THA bearing surfaces - metal-on-polyethylene, ceramic-on-polyethylene, ceramic-on-ceramic, metal-on-metal, dual mobility, wear rates, particle disease, and AOANJRR data for orthopaedic exam
Total Hip Arthroplasty Fixation Options β Comprehensive guide to THA fixation methods - cemented, cementless, and hybrid techniques, patient selection criteria, AOANJRR outcomes data, and implant survival for orthopaedic exam
Total Hip Arthroplasty Indications β Comprehensive guide to THA patient selection, indications, contraindications, preoperative assessment, templating, and decision-making for Orthopaedic exam
Total Hip Arthroplasty Surgical Approaches β Comprehensive guide to THA surgical approaches including posterior, direct anterior, anterolateral, and lateral approaches with nerve injury patterns, dislocation rates, and AOANJRR outcomes data
Total Hip Arthroplasty: Dislocation β Comprehensive guide to THA dislocation including risk factors, Lewinnek safe zones, combined anteversion, dual mobility, and revision strategies for recurrent instability
Total Knee Arthroplasty Indications β Comprehensive guide to indications and contraindications for total knee arthroplasty including patient selection, timing of surgery, and preoperative optimization for FRCS exam preparation
Total Shoulder Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to total shoulder arthroplasty including indications, surgical technique, glenoid component options, reverse vs anatomic designs, and outcomes for Orthopaedic exam preparation
Total Shoulder Arthroplasty (Anatomic) β Comprehensive guide to Anatomic Total Shoulder Arthroplasty (TSA) including indications, surgical technique, and outcomes.
Trochanteric Bursitis β Comprehensive guide to greater trochanteric pain syndrome, trochanteric bursitis, and its differentiation from gluteal tendinopathy β covering clinical assessment, imaging, conservative management, and injection therapy.
Trunnionosis and Taper Corrosion β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to trunnionosis and taper corrosion in total hip arthroplasty - head-neck junction mechanics, corrosion mechanisms, diagnosis with metal ions and MARS MRI, and revision surgery principles
Unicompartmental Knee Arthroplasty (UKA) β Comprehensive guide to partial knee replacement - Indications (Oxford Criteria), Surgical Technique, and Outcomes vs TKA.
Vancouver Classification of Periprosthetic Femoral Fractures β The Vancouver classification system for periprosthetic fractures around femoral hip arthroplasty stems β types A, B1, B2, B3 and C, with fixation status, bone stock, and the treatment algorithm that follows.
Vascular Injury in Hip & Knee Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to vascular injury complicating hip and knee arthroplasty: a rare but potentially limb- and life-threatening complication; the at-risk vessels (popliteal artery in TKA; external iliac/femoral and the acetabular screw 'quadrants' in THA), the mechanisms (direct laceration, traction, tourniquet-related thrombosis in peripheral arterial disease, retractor/screw injury), the anatomic variants and risk factors, acute and delayed (pseudoaneurysm/AV fistula) presentations, and urgent management with vascular surgery.
Cerebral Palsy Gait and SEMLS β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to cerebral palsy gait assessment, gait pattern classification, lever-arm dysfunction, instrumented gait analysis, and single-event multilevel surgery.
Cerebral Palsy Hip Surveillance β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to cerebral palsy hip surveillance, GMFCS risk, Reimers migration percentage, hip abduction, AP pelvis monitoring, adductor-psoas release, VDRO, pelvic osteotomy, salvage surgery and family counselling.
Limb Length Discrepancy and Epiphysiodesis β Detailed clinical guide to paediatric limb length discrepancy: assessment, calibrated imaging, growth prediction, treatment thresholds, epiphysiodesis, physeal bar management, shortening, lengthening, congenital deficiency planning and complications.
Limping Child β Structured orthopaedic approach to the limping child, including age-based differential diagnosis, painful versus painless limp, septic arthritis exclusion, imaging, laboratory workup, and red flags.
Paediatric Bone and Joint Infection β Comprehensive orthopaedic reference on paediatric osteomyelitis and septic arthritis beyond the hip, including septic knee, shoulder, ankle, neonatal disease, Brodie abscess, CRMO, pyomyositis, and treatment principles.
Paediatric Distal Radius, Buckle and Physeal Wrist Fractures β Structured orthopaedic guide to paediatric distal radius fractures, torus/buckle fractures, greenstick injuries, distal radial physeal injuries, acceptable alignment, remodelling, and follow-up.
Paediatric Elbow Radiology and Assessment β Orthopaedic reference guide to paediatric elbow radiology, including CRITOE ossification centres, Baumann angle, anterior humeral line, radiocapitellar line, fat pad signs, and common injury traps.
Paediatric Femur Fractures by Age β Structured orthopaedic guide to paediatric femoral shaft fractures by age, including Pavlik harness, spica cast, traction, flexible nails, submuscular plating, rigid nails, open fractures, and complications.
Congenital Hand Anomalies Overview β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to congenital hand differences, including assessment, Oberg-Manske-Tonkin classification, syndactyly, polydactyly, thumb hypoplasia, symbrachydactyly, cleft hand, timing of surgery, complications and counselling.
Congenital Lower Limb Deficiency Overview β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to congenital lower limb deficiency, including congenital femoral deficiency, fibular hemimelia, tibial hemimelia, limb length prediction, joint stability, foot reconstructability, lengthening, prosthetic pathways, amputation options and family counselling.
Non-Ossifying Fibroma and Fibrous Cortical Defect β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to non-ossifying fibroma and fibrous cortical defect, including classic imaging, natural history, fracture risk, differential diagnosis, pathological fracture management and avoiding unnecessary biopsy.
Paediatric ACL Injury β Advanced orthopaedic guide to ACL injury in skeletally immature patients, including tibial spine avulsion, meniscal risk, skeletal maturity, physeal-respecting reconstruction, graft choice, rehabilitation and return to sport.
Paediatric Femoral Neck Fractures β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to paediatric femoral neck fractures, Delbet classification, femoral-head perfusion risk, urgent reduction, fixation, decompression, AVN, coxa vara and long-term surveillance.
Paediatric Rotational Profile and In-toeing/Out-toeing β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to paediatric rotational profile, in-toeing, out-toeing, femoral anteversion, tibial torsion, metatarsus adductus, natural history, red flags and derotation osteotomy indications.
Radial Longitudinal Deficiency β Orthopaedic teaching chapter on radial longitudinal deficiency, including systemic screening, radius and thumb classification, clinical assessment, centralisation, radialisation, pollicisation, recurrence and follow-up.
Seymour Fracture and Paediatric Nail-bed Injuries β Orthopaedic reference guide to Seymour fractures, paediatric open distal phalanx physeal injuries, nail-bed trauma, fingertip injuries, infection risk, and operative management.
Accessory Navicular β A comprehensive guide to the Accessory Navicular (Os Tibiale Externum), including classification, clinical presentation, and management strategies (Kidner Procedure).
Achondroplasia β Comprehensive guide to Achondroplasia covering orthopaedic manifestations including spinal stenosis, limb deformity, and management principles.
Apert Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Apert syndrome covering FGFR2 genetics, the complex hand and foot syndactyly, Upton classification, and staged surgical reconstruction.
Arthrogryposis β Comprehensive guide to Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita (AMC) - Classification, orthopaedic manifestations, and management.
Atlantoaxial Instability β Comprehensive guide to atlantoaxial instability - C1-C2 pathology, Down syndrome association, ADI measurement, surgical stabilization and fusion techniques for orthopaedic exam
Bado Classification of Monteggia Fractures β The Bado classification of Monteggia fracture-dislocations β four types by direction of radial head dislocation, paediatric and adult management principles, associated nerve injuries, and the critical rule that the ulna governs the outcome.
Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome β Fellowship-level guide to Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) - an imprinting/overgrowth disorder (11p15 region) featuring macrosomia, macroglossia, abdominal wall defects, hyperinsulinism and a predisposition to embryonal tumours (especially Wilms tumour) - focusing on the orthopaedic relevance of lateralised overgrowth/hemihypertrophy, the resulting limb-length discrepancy, the mandatory tumour surveillance, and management of the discrepancy by epiphysiodesis or lengthening.
Bladder Exstrophy (Pelvic Manifestations) β Orthopaedic guide to the pelvic ring abnormality in bladder exstrophy - pubic diastasis, iliac external rotation, the role of osteotomy in closure, immobilisation, and long-term gait and hip outcomes.
Blount Disease (Tibia Vara) β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to Blount disease including LangenskiΓΆld classification, infantile vs adolescent forms, metaphyseal-diaphyseal angle measurement, bracing protocols, and surgical management strategies including proximal tibial osteotomy and guided growth techniques.
Blount Disease (Tibia Vara) β Comprehensive guide to Blount disease (progressive tibia vara) in children, covering infantile and adolescent forms, Langenskiold staging, metaphyseal-diaphyseal angle, distinction from physiological genu varum, and modern management with guided growth and corrective osteotomy.
Caffey Disease β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to Caffey Disease (Infantile Cortical Hyperostosis) - diagnosis, pathophysiology, differential diagnosis, management, and outcomes for orthopaedic fellowship examination preparation
Calcaneovalgus Foot β Comprehensive guide to Calcaneovalgus Foot (talipes calcaneovalgus) for the orthopaedic exam. Covers the dorsiflexed-everted postural newborn foot, differentiation from congenital vertical talus and posteromedial bowing of the tibia, the DDH association, and management.
Camptomelic Dysplasia β Fellowship-level guide to camptomelic (campomelic) dysplasia - a rare, often lethal skeletal dysplasia caused by SOX9 mutation, defined by congenital BOWING (camptomelia) of the long bones (especially the tibia/femur), a small thorax with respiratory compromise, and sex reversal (XY females) - covering the characteristic anterior tibial bowing with a skin dimple, the laryngotracheomalacia/respiratory threat, the associated anomalies, and the largely supportive/palliative management.
Camurati-Engelmann Disease β Comprehensive guide to Camurati-Engelmann disease (progressive diaphyseal dysplasia): TGFB1 pathophysiology, symmetric diaphyseal hyperostosis, limb pain and waddling gait, radiographic features, corticosteroid and losartan management, and exam differentials.
Caudal Regression Syndrome (Sacral Agenesis) β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to caudal regression syndrome / sacral agenesis covering the Renshaw classification, spinopelvic instability, lower-limb deformities, and management.
Cavus Foot (Pediatric) β Comprehensive guide to pediatric cavus foot deformity including etiology, Coleman block test, conservative and surgical management, and differentiation from adult cavovarus
Cerebral Palsy β Comprehensive guide to Cerebral Palsy management - GMFCS classification, Hip Surveillance, Gait Analysis, and Multilevel Surgery.
Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease β Comprehensive guide to Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease (CMT), covering classification, cavus foot deformity, and surgical management principles.
Chondrodysplasia Punctata β Fellowship-level guide to chondrodysplasia punctata (CDP) - a heterogeneous group of skeletal dysplasias whose radiographic hallmark in infancy is stippled (punctate) epiphyseal/peri-articular calcification - covering the main forms (rhizomelic CDP, X-linked Conradi-Hunermann, the X-linked recessive/brachytelephalangic type, and secondary/teratogenic causes such as warfarin embryopathy and maternal autoimmune disease), the orthopaedic sequelae (rhizomelic limb shortening, asymmetric limb-length discrepancy, scoliosis, cataracts), and management.
Chondrolysis of the Hip (Idiopathic and Post-SCFE) β Fellowship-level guide to chondrolysis of the hip - rapid loss of articular cartilage with concentric joint-space narrowing, stiffness and pain in adolescents: the idiopathic form (a diagnosis of exclusion with normal inflammatory markers, diagnosed early on MRI) and chondrolysis complicating slipped capital femoral epiphysis (especially with pin/implant penetration), plus its management spectrum from anti-inflammatory/physiotherapy to salvage.
Chronic Nonbacterial Osteomyelitis and CRMO β Advanced orthopaedic guide to chronic nonbacterial osteomyelitis and chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis, including clinical presentation, imaging, differential diagnosis, biopsy indications, treatment escalation, orthopaedic role and complications.
Cleidocranial Dysostosis β Comprehensive coverage of cleidocranial dysostosis (cleidocranial dysplasia) including RUNX2 (CBFA1) deficiency, absent or hypoplastic clavicles, delayed cranial ossification with Wormian bones, dental and skeletal anomalies, and orthopaedic management for fellowship examination preparation
Clubfoot (Congenital Talipes Equinovarus) β Comprehensive guide to clubfoot - Ponseti method, pathoanatomy, classification, treatment, casting technique, tenotomy, bracing, and recurrence management for orthopaedic exam
Congenital Constriction Bands (Amniotic Band Syndrome) β Comprehensive guide to congenital constriction bands - amniotic band syndrome, classification, clinical features, treatment, and differentiation from other congenital limb deformities
Congenital Dislocation of the Knee β Comprehensive guide to congenital dislocation of the knee (CDK), including Tarek grading, associated conditions (DDH, clubfoot, arthrogryposis, Larsen syndrome), serial casting, and quadricepsplasty for resistant cases.
Congenital Dislocation of the Patella β Comprehensive guide to congenital fixed lateral patellar dislocation from birth, including differentiation from habitual dislocation, associated deformities, and extensive lateral release with realignment strategies.
Congenital Kyphosis β A comprehensive guide to Congenital Kyphosis, covering Winter classification, neurological risks, and surgical management with emphasis on early intervention.
Congenital Pseudarthrosis of the Clavicle β Fellowship-level guide to congenital pseudarthrosis of the clavicle: a rare painless failure of fusion of the clavicular ossification centres presenting as a mobile mid-clavicular lump, almost always RIGHT-sided and (unlike congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia) NOT associated with neurofibromatosis - covering the distinction from a birth fracture and cleidocranial dysplasia, and the observation-versus-surgery management.
Congenital Pseudarthrosis of the Tibia β Comprehensive guide to congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia, including NF1 association, Crawford classification, anterolateral bowing progression, and surgical strategies for this recalcitrant nonunion.
Congenital Pseudarthrosis of Tibia β Comprehensive guide to congenital pseudarthrosis of tibia (CPT) - Crawford classification, neurofibromatosis association, treatment from bracing to vascularized fibula transfer, and outcomes
Congenital Scoliosis β Comprehensive guide to congenital scoliosis - failure of formation vs segmentation, VACTERL screening, natural history, and surgical management strategies
Congenital Talipes Equinovarus (Clubfoot) β Comprehensive guide to congenital talipes equinovarus including CAVE deformity, Pirani and Dimeglio scoring, Ponseti method with casting sequence, percutaneous Achilles tenotomy, foot abduction bracing, relapse management, and posteromedial release.
Congenital Vertical Talus β Comprehensive guide to Congenital Vertical Talus (CVT) - The 'Rocker Bottom Foot' causes, diagnosis, and management.
Coxa Vara β Comprehensive guide to Congenital and Acquired Coxa Vara - Diagnosis, HE Angle, and Valgus Osteotomy
Cozen Fracture β Comprehensive guide to Cozen fracture (proximal tibial metaphyseal fracture in children), including post-traumatic valgus deformity, natural history, and the critical principle of avoiding premature corrective osteotomy.
Curly Toes β Comprehensive guide to curly toes - pediatric toe deformity, flexor tenotomy, age-appropriate treatment, and differentiation from other lesser toe deformities
DDH Treatment Options β Comprehensive guide to developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) treatment - age-based management from Pavlik harness to open reduction and osteotomies, AVN prevention, and outcomes
Delbet Classification of Paediatric Hip Fractures β The Delbet classification of paediatric proximal femoral fractures β the four anatomic types, their avascular necrosis risk, management principles, and the critical importance of urgent capsular decompression.
Diastrophic Dysplasia β Comprehensive guide to diastrophic dysplasia - an autosomal recessive short-limbed skeletal dysplasia due to SLC26A2 sulfate transporter mutations, featuring hitchhiker thumb, cauliflower ear, rigid clubfoot, cervical kyphosis, and progressive scoliosis.
Discoid Lateral Meniscus β Comprehensive guide to discoid lateral meniscus in children and adolescents: Watanabe and Ahn classifications, snapping knee presentation, MRI criteria, and arthroscopic saucerisation with or without stabilisation.
Discoid Meniscus (Pediatric) β Comprehensive guide to Discoid Meniscus in children - Watanabe classification, diagnosis (MRI Bow-tie sign), and management (Saucerization vs Repair)
Distal Femoral Physeal Injuries β A comprehensive guide to Distal Femoral Physeal Injuries, covering the unique risks of this growth plate, management principles, and long-term surveillance.
Distal Tibial Physeal Injuries β A comprehensive guide to Distal Tibial Physeal Injuries, including standard Salter-Harris patterns and transitional fractures (Tillaux and Triplane).
Down Syndrome Orthopaedic β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations in Down Syndrome including atlantoaxial instability, hip dysplasia, and foot deformities.
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy β Comprehensive guide to Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - Orthopaedic manifestations, scoliosis management, and fracture considerations.
Early Onset Scoliosis (EOS) β A comprehensive guide to Early Onset Scoliosis, covering the C-EOS classification, Mehta (Rib-Vertebral Angle Difference), and growth-friendly management strategies.
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome including joint instability, dislocations, and management principles.
Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy (FSHD) β Fellowship-level guide to facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD): the third most common muscular dystrophy with a descending facioscapulohumeral pattern of weakness, the 4q35 D4Z4 / DUX4 genetic basis, the orthopaedic problem of scapular winging, and the role, technique, outcomes and complications of scapulothoracic arthrodesis (with preserved deltoid) within multidisciplinary care.
Familial Dysautonomia (Riley-Day) - Orthopaedic Features β Fellowship-level guide to the orthopaedic features of familial dysautonomia (Riley-Day syndrome, hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type III) - an autosomal-recessive disorder (Ashkenazi Jewish, ELP1/IKBKAP) of autonomic dysfunction and reduced pain/temperature sensation - covering the resulting neuropathic (insensate) orthopaedic problems shared with other insensate states: Charcot (neuropathic) joints, painless/unrecognised fractures, scoliosis, osteomyelitis/septic arthritis and self-injury - and the management principle of early diagnosis, protection and patient/family education.
Fibrodysplasia (Myositis) Ossificans Progressiva (FOP) β Fellowship-level guide to fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva: an ultra-rare autosomal dominant ACVR1 (ALK2) disorder causing progressive heterotopic ossification that turns soft tissue into bone, recognised at birth by malformed great toes, with flares triggered by trauma - so biopsy, intramuscular injections and surgery are contraindicated; covering the genetics/pathophysiology (Activin A), clinical course, diagnosis and supportive management (palovarotene).
Fibular Hemimelia β Comprehensive guide to fibular hemimelia - Achterman-Kalamchi and Birch classifications, treatment decision (Syme amputation vs reconstruction), limb length discrepancy management, and outcomes
Flexible Flatfoot (Pediatric) β Comprehensive guide to Pediatric Flexible Flatfoot (Pes Planus) - Diagnosis, Natural History, and Management controversies (Orthotics vs Surgery)
Friedreich Ataxia β Comprehensive guide to Friedreich Ataxia covering scoliosis, foot deformity, and cardiomyopathy management in this hereditary ataxia.
Gartland Classification of Supracondylar Humeral Fractures β The Gartland classification for paediatric extension-type supracondylar humerus fractures β Types I through IV, management by type, neurovascular assessment, and pinning technique.
Gaucher Disease β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of Gaucher Disease including bone crises, AVN, pathological fractures, and management for Orthopaedic examination.
Genu Valgum and Genu Varum in Children β Comprehensive guide to pediatric angular knee deformities - physiological vs pathological, Blount disease, rickets, hemiepiphysiodesis, and guided growth
Gymnast's Wrist (Distal Radial Physeal Stress Injury) β Exam-focused guide to gymnast's wrist: repetitive compressive loading of the distal radial physis in young athletes, presenting with dorsal wrist pain. Covers the pathomechanics (compressive microtrauma to the open physis), radiographic findings (widening, irregularity, cystic changes, positive ulnar variance), MRI staging of physeal stress injury, and management from activity modification to surgical epiphysiodesis in refractory cases.
Hemihypertrophy (Hemihyperplasia) β Congenital lateralized overgrowth causing progressive limb-length discrepancy and limb/digit enlargement, with a critical embryonal tumour (Wilms, hepatoblastoma) surveillance imperative - orthopaedic assessment, monitoring and growth-modulating management for fellowship exam preparation
Hemophilia β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of hemophilia including hemophilic arthropathy, hemarthroses, perioperative management, and surgical considerations for FRACS examination.
Hereditary Motor Sensory Neuropathies β Comprehensive guide to Hereditary Motor Sensory Neuropathies (Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease) - Orthopaedic manifestations and management.
Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia / Metachromatic Leukodystrophy (Orthopaedic Sequelae) β Fellowship-level guide to the orthopaedic sequelae of two progressive neurological disorders - hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP, a group of inherited disorders of the corticospinal tracts causing progressive lower-limb spasticity and a spastic gait) and metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD, a lysosomal storage leukodystrophy causing neuroregression) - focusing on the spasticity-driven lower-limb problems (equinus/pes planovalgus, flexed-knee 'crouch', hip displacement, contractures) and neuromuscular scoliosis, managed on cerebral-palsy-like principles with tone management, orthoses and selective surgery.
Hypochondroplasia β Fellowship-level guide to hypochondroplasia - a common autosomal-dominant skeletal dysplasia caused by FGFR3 gain-of-function mutation (a milder allelic relative of achondroplasia) producing disproportionate short stature with mild rhizomelia and lumbar features - covering its often subtle, postnatally-diagnosed phenotype, the radiographic clues (failure of interpedicular widening down the lumbar spine, squared short pelvis), the differential from achondroplasia, and management (limb-length/spinal monitoring, with emerging FGFR3-pathway therapy).
Infantile Idiopathic Scoliosis β A comprehensive guide to Infantile Idiopathic Scoliosis (Age 0-3), distinguishing resolving from progressive curves using the Mehta Angle and Rib Head Phases.
Iselin Disease (Fifth Metatarsal Apophysitis) β Comprehensive guide to Iselin disease - traction apophysitis of the base of the fifth metatarsal and a frequently missed cause of lateral foot pain in active children. Covers the peroneus brevis traction mechanism, the apophysis-versus-fracture trap, evidence-based conservative management, and exam viva preparation.
Juvenile Hallux Valgus β A comprehensive guide to Juvenile Hallux Valgus, focusing on the high recurrence rates, Distal Metatarsal Articular Angle (DMAA), and physeal-sparing surgical options.
Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis including joint contractures, growth disturbance, and surgical management.
Juvenile Idiopathic Scoliosis β A comprehensive guide to Juvenile Idiopathic Scoliosis (Age 4-10), emphasizing the high risk of progression, neural axis abnormalities, and management challenges.
Kingella kingae Osteoarticular Infection β Comprehensive guide to Kingella kingae musculoskeletal infections in young children, covering the commonest cause of septic arthritis and osteomyelitis under 4 years, indolent presentation, blood-culture-bottle inoculation, PCR diagnosis, and beta-lactam treatment.
Klippel-Feil Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Klippel-Feil Syndrome - congenital cervical fusion, Samartzis classification, associated anomalies (Sprengel's, Renal, Cardiac), and management of instability.
Kniest Dysplasia β Fellowship-level guide to Kniest dysplasia: an autosomal dominant COL2A1 type II collagenopathy causing disproportionate short-trunk dwarfism with stiff enlarged joints and dumbbell-shaped long bones, plus the extra-skeletal features of type II collagen disease (myopia/retinal detachment, hearing loss), its place in the COL2A1 spectrum, and supportive multidisciplinary management.
Kocher Criteria for Septic Arthritis of the Hip β The Kocher clinical prediction rule for differentiating septic arthritis from transient synovitis in children β the four independent predictors, probability stratification, and how to act on the count.
Kohler Disease (Navicular Osteochondrosis) β Comprehensive guide to Kohler disease - avascular necrosis of the tarsal navicular in children, including diagnosis, imaging, conservative management, and excellent prognosis for FRCS exam preparation
Larsen Syndrome β Comprehensive coverage of Larsen syndrome (FLNB-related osteochondrodysplasia) including multiple large-joint dislocations, congenital knee and hip dislocation, clubfeet, cervical kyphosis with myelopathy risk, dysmorphic facies, and a staged orthopaedic management approach for fellowship examination preparation
Little League Elbow β Exam-focused guide to Little League elbow: medial epicondyle apophyseal stress in young throwers, how valgus overload injures the open apophysis, imaging choices, rest-and-rehab management, return-to-throwing, red flags for avulsion fracture, and viva-ready prevention advice.
Marfan Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of Marfan Syndrome including scoliosis, protrusio acetabuli, and pes planus.
McCune-Albright Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to McCune-Albright Syndrome covering the classic triad, GNAS1 mutation, skeletal manifestations, endocrine features, and orthopaedic management including shepherd's crook deformity.
Medial Epicondyle Fractures in Children β Comprehensive guide to pediatric medial epicondyle fractures - elbow dislocation association, fragment entrapment, classification, ORIF indications, and ulnar nerve considerations
Metatropic Dysplasia, Jeune (Asphyxiating Thoracic) & Ellis-van Creveld β Fellowship-level guide to a group of rare skeletal dysplasias with a small/narrow thorax and limb shortening - Jeune asphyxiating thoracic dysplasia (short-rib thoracic dysplasia, with life-threatening thoracic insufficiency and renal disease), Ellis-van Creveld (chondroectodermal dysplasia - postaxial polydactyly, nail/dental defects, congenital heart disease) and metatropic dysplasia (a 'changing pattern' dysplasia with a coccygeal tail, severe progressive kyphoscoliosis and platyspondyly) - covering recognition, the thoracic/spinal threats, and management.
Salter-Harris Physeal Fracture Classification β The Salter-Harris classification of physeal fractures in children β types I through V, the SALTR mnemonic, prognostic implications, and management principles for the exam.
Scheuermann Kyphosis β Comprehensive guide to Scheuermann disease - juvenile kyphosis, diagnostic criteria, bracing, surgical indications, and differentiation from postural kyphosis
SCIWORA β Comprehensive guide to SCIWORA (Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiographic Abnormality) - pathophysiology, pediatric susceptibility, Pang classification, and management protocols.
Scurvy β Vitamin C deficiency causing defective collagen synthesis with characteristic musculoskeletal manifestations including subperiosteal hemorrhage, pathognomonic radiographic signs, and implications for differential diagnosis from non-accidental injury
Septic Arthritis of the Pediatric Hip β Comprehensive guide to diagnosis and management of septic arthritis of the hip in children - a true orthopaedic emergency requiring urgent surgical washout.
Sever's Disease (Calcaneal Apophysitis) β Comprehensive guide to Sever's disease - the most common cause of heel pain in active children. Covers the calcaneal apophysis, traction overuse mechanism, the squeeze test, differential diagnosis, evidence-based conservative management, and exam viva preparation.
Sickle Cell Disease β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of Sickle Cell Disease including AVN, osteomyelitis, bone infarcts, and perioperative management for FRACS examination.
Sinding-Larsen-Johansson Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Sinding-Larsen-Johansson syndrome - inferior pole patellar apophysitis, diagnosis, treatment, return to sport, and differentiation from other causes of anterior knee pain in adolescents
Skeletal Dysplasias β Comprehensive guide to skeletal dysplasias - achondroplasia, osteogenesis imperfecta, mucopolysaccharidoses, classification, radiographic diagnosis, and orthopaedic management for fellowship examinations
Skewfoot β Comprehensive guide to Skewfoot (Serpentine Foot) for the Orthopaedic Orthopaedic Exam, covering pathoanatomy, differentiation from Metatarsus Adductus, and surgical correction.
Spastic Equinovarus Foot (Cerebral Palsy) β Comprehensive guide to spastic equinovarus foot deformity in cerebral palsy, covering dynamic vs fixed deformity, gait analysis, orthopaedic management including SPLATT, tendon transfers, and bracing strategies for FRACS/FRCS exam preparation.
Pediatric Spondylolysis β Comprehensive guide to pediatric spondylolysis (pars defect) - diagnosis (Scottie Dog), imaging algorithm (SPECT/MRI), and management from bracing to repair
Spina Bifida β Comprehensive guide to Spina Bifida focusing on orthopaedic manifestations including hip dysplasia, scoliosis, clubfoot, and fractures.
Spinal Muscular Atrophy β Comprehensive guide to Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), covering classification, orthopaedic manifestations, and management including scoliosis and hip dysplasia.
Sprengel Deformity β Advanced orthopaedic guide to congenital elevation of the scapula, including clinical assessment, associated anomaly screening, imaging, classification, non-operative care, Woodward and Green procedures, complications and follow-up.
Stickler Syndrome β Fellowship-level guide to Stickler syndrome - an inherited collagenopathy (most often COL2A1, type I; COL11A1, type II) producing ocular, orofacial, auditory and skeletal abnormalities - covering the high-myopia/retinal-detachment risk, the Pierre Robin/cleft-palate orofacial features, the sensorineural hearing loss, and the orthopaedic relevance of early-onset osteoarthritis, joint hypermobility and spinal/epiphyseal changes, with the central message of mandatory ophthalmology surveillance.
Stulberg Classification of Perthes Outcome β The Stulberg classification system for grading femoral head sphericity and congruency at skeletal maturity after Legg-Calve-Perthes disease β Classes I through V, prognostic implications for late osteoarthritis, and clinical application.
Supracondylar Humerus Fracture β Comprehensive guide to supracondylar humerus fractures in children for FRCS exam preparation
Thrombocytopenia-Absent Radius (TAR) Syndrome β Orthopaedic teaching chapter on Thrombocytopenia-Absent Radius (TAR) syndrome: the absent-radii-with-thumbs-present pattern, RBM8A genetics, neonatal thrombocytopenia, lower-limb and knee deformity, and how the bleeding disorder shapes the timing of hand and limb reconstruction.
Idiopathic Toe Walking β A comprehensive guide to Idiopathic Toe Walking, including differential diagnosis (CP, muscular dystrophy), clinical assessment, and management algorithm.
Metaphyseal Chondrodysplasia β Comprehensive guide to metaphyseal chondrodysplasias (Schmid, Jansen, McKusick types), including genetics, clinical features, differentials, and management.
Metatarsus Adductus β Comprehensive guide to metatarsus adductus covering packaging aetiology, Bleck classification, non-operative management, and the rare indications for surgery.
Meyers-McKeever Classification of Tibial Spine Fractures β The Meyers-McKeever classification for tibial intercondylar eminence (spine) fractures in children and adolescents β the four types, association with ACL avulsion, and management by grade.
Milch Classification of Lateral Condyle Fractures β The Milch classification for paediatric lateral condyle fractures β how the fracture line relates to the trochlear groove, why type II is unstable, and how displacement drives treatment.
Monteggia Fractures in Children β Comprehensive guide to pediatric Monteggia fracture-dislocations - Bado classification, missed diagnosis pitfalls, reduction maneuvers, and management of chronic radial head dislocation
Mucopolysaccharidoses β Comprehensive guide to mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) - lysosomal storage disorders affecting orthopaedic practice including Hurler, Hunter, Morquio, and Maroteaux-Lamy syndromes with clinical features, radiographic findings, and surgical management
Multiple Epiphyseal Dysplasia β Comprehensive guide to Multiple Epiphyseal Dysplasia (MED), including COMP and COL9 mutations, clinical presentation with small irregular epiphyses, early-onset osteoarthritis, and differentiation from bilateral Perthes disease.
Multiple Hereditary Exostoses β Comprehensive guide to Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (HME/MHE) covering diagnosis, deformity, malignant transformation, and surgical management.
Myelomeningocele β Comprehensive guide to Myelomeningocele (Spina Bifida) management - Neurological levels, Orthopedic interventions, Chiari II, Tethered Cord, and Latex Allergy.
Nail-Patella Syndrome β Orthopaedic-focused guide to nail-patella syndrome (LMX1B): the classic tetrad of dysplastic nails, absent/hypoplastic patellae, iliac horns and elbow dysplasia, with patellar instability management and nephropathy surveillance.
Neurofibromatosis β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of Neurofibromatosis Type 1 including scoliosis, tibial dysplasia, and congenital pseudarthrosis.
Neuromuscular Scoliosis β Comprehensive guide to neuromuscular scoliosis management - Cerebral Palsy, SMA, Duchenne, pelvic obliquity, and surgical fixation strategies
Non-Accidental Injury β A comprehensive guide to Non-Accidental Injury (NAI) in children, covering recognition, fracture patterns, investigation protocols, and medico-legal considerations.
Nursemaid's Elbow (Pulled Elbow / Radial Head Subluxation) β Fellowship-level guide to nursemaid's elbow: radial head subluxation under the annular ligament in young children, the classic pull mechanism, a clinical diagnosis, and reduction by the hyperpronation manoeuvre (better than supination-flexion on Cochrane evidence).
Oblique Talus β Comprehensive guide to Oblique Talus for the Orthopaedic Orthopaedic Exam. Covering differentiation from congenital vertical talus, radiographic findings, and management spectrum.
Ogden Classification of Tibial Tubercle Fractures β The Ogden classification of tibial tubercle avulsion fractures in adolescents β the three types by fracture extent through the secondary ossification center, epiphysis and joint, the Osgood-Schlatter relationship, and ORIF principles for displaced fractures.
Osgood-Schlatter Disease β Comprehensive guide to Osgood-Schlatter disease - tibial tubercle apophysitis, diagnosis, treatment, return to sport, and differentiation from other causes of anterior knee pain in adolescents
Osteogenesis Imperfecta β Comprehensive guide to Osteogenesis Imperfecta covering classification, fracture management, bisphosphonates, and rodding surgery.
Osteopetrosis β Comprehensive guide to Osteopetrosis covering pathophysiology, clinical types (malignant infantile vs benign adult), radiographic features, surgical challenges, and management including bone marrow transplant.
Paediatric Amputee & Congenital Limb Deficiency Management β Fellowship-level guide to the management of the paediatric amputee and congenital limb deficiency - covering the key differences from adults (the growing skeleton, terminal bony overgrowth, the preference for disarticulation over transosseous amputation, and remarkable adaptation/prosthetic tolerance), the evaluation of congenital limb differences (often part of a syndrome) versus acquired amputation (most commonly traumatic), and a multidisciplinary, family-centred plan integrating prosthetic milestones, growth and function.
Paediatric Ankle Fractures and Transitional Injuries β Advanced orthopaedic guide to paediatric ankle fractures and transitional injuries: mechanism, distal tibial physeal closure, Salter-Harris patterns, Tillaux and triplane fractures, CT-based thresholds, operative technique and growth-arrest follow-up.
Paediatric Pelvic Osteomyelitis & Sacroiliac Joint Infection β Fellowship-level guide to pelvic osteomyelitis and septic sacroiliitis in children: the vague, often-delayed presentation (limp, hip/buttock/back pain, refusal to weight-bear, fever) that mimics hip and spine pathology, the 'metaphyseal equivalent' concept that makes the sacroiliac joint and pubis common sites, the central role of MRI, the predominance of Staphylococcus aureus, and antibiotic-led management with drainage reserved for abscess.
Paediatric Pelvis and Hip Trauma β Advanced orthopaedic guide to paediatric pelvis and hip trauma, including assessment, injury families, imaging, pelvic ring injury, acetabular injury, traumatic hip dislocation, paediatric femoral neck fracture, apophyseal avulsion fractures, operative decision-making and complications.
Paediatric Radial Neck, Olecranon and Elbow Dislocation Injuries β Advanced orthopaedic guide to paediatric radial neck fractures, olecranon fractures and elbow dislocations: clinical assessment, radiographic interpretation, treatment thresholds, operative choices and complications.
Panner Disease (Capitellar Osteochondrosis) β Comprehensive FRACS and FRCS guide to Panner disease - osteochondrosis (avascular necrosis) of the humeral capitellum in young children, including how to distinguish it from osteochondritis dissecans, imaging, conservative management and excellent prognosis
Patellar Instability (Pediatric) β Comprehensive guide to Pediatric Patellar Instability - Risk Factors, TT-TG, MPFL Reconstruction, and Management
Pediatric Acute Osteomyelitis β Comprehensive guide to Pediatric Acute Osteomyelitis - Hematogenous spread, diagnosis, antibiotics, and surgical indications.
Pediatric Patella Sleeve Fractures β Comprehensive guide to Pediatric Patella Sleeve Fractures - Diagnosis, treatment, and the importance of early recognition.
Pediatric Psoas Abscess β Fellowship-level guide to the paediatric psoas (iliopsoas) abscess - a collection of pus within the psoas/iliacus muscle that classically mimics hip septic arthritis or appendicitis in a child - covering the primary (haematogenous, often Staphylococcus aureus/MRSA) versus secondary forms, the characteristic presentation (fever, flexed irritable hip, painful extension/'psoas sign', limp), the central role of MRI/ultrasound, and management by antibiotics plus drainage (image-guided or open retroperitoneal).
Physeal Injuries (Salter-Harris Classification) β A comprehensive guide to Physeal Injuries using the Salter-Harris Classification, covering anatomy, prognosis, and management principles.
Poland Syndrome β Advanced orthopaedic guide to Poland syndrome (congenital unilateral chest wall and ipsilateral hand hypoplasia), covering the subclavian artery disruption theory, symbrachydactyly, classification, imaging, hand and chest wall management, complications and global practice.
Poliomyelitis (Orthopaedic Sequelae) β Exam-focused guide to the orthopaedic sequelae of poliomyelitis - flaccid paralysis, limb-length discrepancy, flail joints, foot deformity, post-polio syndrome, and the principles of tendon transfer, osteotomy and arthrodesis.
Polydactyly of the Foot β A comprehensive guide to Polydactyly of the foot, covering classification (Pre-axial, Post-axial, Central), surgical management, and syndrome associations.
Posteromedial Bow of Tibia β Comprehensive guide to congenital posteromedial bowing of the tibia - benign angular deformity that remodels spontaneously, but with progressive limb-length discrepancy that frequently requires treatment, plus calcaneovalgus and ankle-dorsiflexion sequelae
Prader-Willi Syndrome (Orthopaedic Manifestations) β Fellowship-level guide to the orthopaedic manifestations of Prader-Willi syndrome - a genetic imprinting disorder (loss of paternal 15q11-q13) characterised by hypotonia, hyperphagia/obesity and developmental issues - focusing on the high prevalence of scoliosis and developmental hip dysplasia, the effects of hypotonia and growth-hormone therapy, and the perioperative considerations (obesity, OSA, anaesthetic risk) for the orthopaedic surgeon.
Proximal Femoral Focal Deficiency β Comprehensive guide to proximal femoral focal deficiency (PFFD) - classification (Aitken), clinical features, treatment options from reconstruction to rotationplasty, and outcomes
Proximal Tibial Physeal Injuries β A comprehensive guide to Proximal Tibial Physeal Injuries, covering vascular risks, classification, and management principles.
Pseudoachondroplasia β Fellowship-level guide to pseudoachondroplasia: an autosomal dominant COMP skeletal dysplasia presenting as normal-at-birth short-limb dwarfism with a normal face and normal intelligence, its epiphyseal-and-metaphyseal radiographic features, the orthopaedic problems (lower-limb malalignment, early osteoarthritis, cervical instability), and how it differs from achondroplasia.
Pterygium Syndromes / Congenital Popliteal Webbing β Fellowship-level guide to the pterygium syndromes - congenital skin/soft-tissue webs ('pterygia') bridging the flexor aspect of joints, producing fixed flexion deformity - focusing on popliteal pterygium syndrome (a popliteal web with knee flexion contracture, often with orofacial clefting, genital and foot anomalies) and the multiple pterygium syndrome (Escobar) - covering the soft-tissue/neurovascular challenges, the role of the shortened sciatic nerve in the popliteal web, and a staged surgical and rehabilitative approach.
Pyknodysostosis β Comprehensive coverage of pyknodysostosis (Toulouse-Lautrec disease) including cathepsin K deficiency, clinical features, radiographic findings including diffuse osteosclerosis and acroosteolysis, orthopaedic management of fractures and complications for fellowship examination preparation
Radioulnar Synostosis β Comprehensive guide to Congenital and Post-Traumatic Radioulnar Synostosis - Classification (Cleary & Omer), Management, and Complications
Rett Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Rett Syndrome focusing on orthopaedic manifestations including scoliosis and orthopaedic management principles.
Rigid Flatfoot β A comprehensive guide to the assessment and management of Rigid Pes Planus (Rigid Flatfoot), focusing on Tarsal Coalition, Vertical Talus, and other etiologies.
Tarsal Coalition β Comprehensive guide to Tarsal Coalition - Diagnosis, classification, and management of Calcaneonavicular and Talocalcaneal coalitions.
Thalassemia β Comprehensive guide to orthopaedic manifestations of thalassemia including bone changes, osteoporosis, pathological fractures, and management strategies.
Thiemann Disease β Exam-focused guide to Thiemann disease: its pathophysiology as an avascular necrosis of the phalangeal epiphyses, clinical presentation, radiological findings of epiphyseal fragmentation, and conservative management.
Tibia Vara (Blount's Disease) β Comprehensive guide to Tibia Vara (Blount's Disease) - Pathophysiology, classification, and management of infantile vs adolescent forms.
Tibial Hemimelia β Comprehensive guide to tibial hemimelia - Jones classification, knee functionality assessment, treatment from synostosis to amputation, and outcomes
Torticollis in Children β Comprehensive guide to pediatric torticollis - congenital muscular torticollis, differential diagnosis, stretching programs, surgical release indications, and outcome assessment
Transient Synovitis β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to transient synovitis of the hip in children - diagnosis, differentiation from septic arthritis using Kocher criteria, management, and outcomes
Transitional Fractures: Tillaux and Triplane β A comprehensive guide to transitional ankle fractures in adolescents, including Tillaux and Triplane patterns, CT-based treatment decisions, and surgical techniques.
Transphyseal Distal Humerus Fracture (Distal Humeral Physeal Separation) β Fellowship-level guide to transphyseal fracture of the distal humerus: a separation through the largely cartilaginous distal humeral physis in infants and young children, its strong link to birth and non-accidental trauma, how to diagnose it (forearm-humerus malalignment, arthrogram), and treatment by closed reduction and percutaneous pinning.
Trevor Disease (Dysplasia Epiphysealis Hemimelica) β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to Trevor disease (dysplasia epiphysealis hemimelica) covering its hemimelic epiphyseal osteochondromas, the Azouz and Arealis classifications, distinction from osteochondroma, MRI-led diagnosis, marginal excision, deformity correction, and the risks of recurrence and early osteoarthritis.
Turner Syndrome (Orthopaedic Manifestations) β Fellowship-level guide to the orthopaedic manifestations of Turner syndrome (45,X and variants) - whose skeletal features are largely attributable to haploinsufficiency of the SHOX gene - covering the characteristic short stature, cubitus valgus, genu valgum, short fourth metacarpals, Madelung deformity and high-arched palate, the increased risk of scoliosis/kyphosis and reduced bone density, and the management interface with growth-hormone and oestrogen therapy.
Wheelchair Seating and Positioning β Comprehensive exam-focused review of wheelchair seating and positioning principles including pelvic positioning, pressure management, postural supports, and interface with orthopaedic surgery for patients with neurological conditions
Windswept Deformity (CP / Rickets) β Fellowship-level guide to the windswept deformity - the combination of genu valgum in one leg and genu varum in the other (or, at the hips, abduction of one and adduction of the other) - covering its varied aetiologies (rickets and other metabolic bone disease being the largest group, plus skeletal dysplasias/genetic disorders, trauma/physeal injury, and neuromuscular causes such as cerebral palsy, with an idiopathic group), the diagnostic work-up to find the underlying cause, and aetiology-directed management.
Adult-Onset Still's Disease β Fellowship-level guide to adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD) - a systemic autoinflammatory disorder of the IL-1/IL-18 axis presenting with the classic tetrad of daily (quotidian) spiking fever, an evanescent salmon-pink rash, arthralgia/arthritis and a strikingly high ferritin - covering the Yamaguchi diagnostic criteria, AOSD as a diagnosis of exclusion (mimicking sepsis, malignancy and other rheumatic disease), its feared complication of macrophage activation syndrome, the orthopaedic relevance (chronic arthritis, notably carpal/wrist ankylosis), and management from NSAIDs/steroids to IL-1/IL-6 biologics.
Apoptosis and Cell Death in Orthopaedics β Fellowship-level guide to apoptosis (programmed cell death) for orthopaedic exams: the contrast with necrosis, the intrinsic (mitochondrial, Bcl-2/cytochrome c/caspase-9) and extrinsic (death-receptor/caspase-8) pathways converging on executioner caspases, and its orthopaedic relevance - growth-plate chondrocyte apoptosis in endochondral ossification, interdigital apoptosis, and chondrocyte/osteocyte apoptosis in osteoarthritis and osteonecrosis.
Articular Cartilage Structure and Function β Comprehensive guide to articular cartilage structure, composition, zonal organization, and biomechanical properties for basic science viva preparation
Biceps Femoris Short Head Anatomy β Detailed anatomy of the Short Head of Biceps Femoris, the only hamstring muscle that does NOT cross the hip joint, including its unique innervation and clinical significance.
Bioabsorbable & Magnesium (Biodegradable Metal) Implants β Fellowship-level guide to biodegradable metal implants - chiefly magnesium-based devices (and zinc/iron alloys) that resorb after fulfilling their fixation role - covering why they are attractive (an elastic modulus close to bone reducing stress shielding, biocompatibility and osteoconductivity/pro-osteogenic effects, no removal surgery, less imaging artefact than titanium/steel), the main limitation of controlling corrosion/degradation and hydrogen-gas evolution, the radiological evolution that can mimic complications, and current clinical use (e.g. the MAGNEZIX magnesium compression screw in foot/ankle) - distinct from the bioabsorbable polymers covered elsewhere.
Bioabsorbable Materials β Comprehensive guide to bioabsorbable implants for FRCS examination
Biofilm Formation in Orthopaedic Infections β Comprehensive guide to bacterial biofilm formation, structure, antimicrobial resistance mechanisms, and clinical implications for prosthetic joint infections and implant-related infections
Bisphosphonates β Exam-focused guide to bisphosphonates in orthopaedics: mechanism of action, classes and potency, indications, dosing, evidence for fracture prevention, and the key complications (atypical femoral fracture, osteonecrosis of the jaw) plus the drug holiday concept.
Bone Composition and Structure β Comprehensive guide to bone composition, hierarchical organization, mineral and organic matrix components for basic science viva preparation
Bone Grafts β Comprehensive guide to bone grafts including autograft, allograft, ceramics, demineralized bone matrix, and bone morphogenetic proteins.
Bone Healing and Fracture Biology β Comprehensive guide to primary and secondary bone healing, cellular mechanisms, growth factors, and factors affecting fracture union for FRCS examination
Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) β Comprehensive guide to bone morphogenetic proteins, signaling pathways, clinical applications, and osteoinductive properties for basic science viva preparation
Bone Remodeling β Comprehensive guide to bone remodeling physiology, BMU function, coupling mechanisms, and regulation for basic science viva preparation
Bone Signaling Pathways (Wnt, RANK-RANKL-OPG, BMP/TGF-Ξ², Hedgehog, Notch) β Fellowship-level basic-science guide to the molecular pathways that control bone: the RANK-RANKL-OPG axis of osteoclastogenesis, Wnt/Ξ²-catenin and its sclerostin brake, BMP/TGF-Ξ² in osteoblast differentiation, and the Hedgehog and Notch pathways - with the drugs (denosumab, romosozumab, BMP-2) that target them.
Calcific Periarthritis & Hydroxyapatite Deposition Disease (HADD) β Fellowship-level guide to hydroxyapatite crystal deposition disease (HADD) and calcific periarthritis - deposition of basic calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite) crystals in periarticular soft tissues (tendons, bursae, capsule, ligaments) producing calcific tendinopathy (classically of the rotator cuff), acute crystal-induced 'periarthritis' attacks, and occasionally destructive arthropathy (Milwaukee shoulder) - covering the radiographic amorphous calcification, the resorptive-phase acute attack, the differential from gout/CPPD, and management from conservative care to ultrasound-guided barbotage.
Calcium Homeostasis β Exam-focused guide to calcium homeostasis and metabolic bone disease: the PTH, vitamin D and calcitonin axis, the roles of bone, gut and kidney, and the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis, osteomalacia and rickets, hyperparathyroidism, renal bone disease and Paget disease.
Cartilage Healing and Repair β Comprehensive guide to articular cartilage healing biology, repair mechanisms, and surgical interventions including microfracture, osteochondral grafts, and cell-based therapies for FRCS exam preparation
Cellular & Molecular Biology Basics for Orthopaedics β Fellowship-level basic-science primer for orthopaedics: the eukaryotic cell and its organelles, the cell cycle and its controls, the central dogma (DNA to RNA to protein), collagen synthesis as the orthopaedic exemplar, cell death (apoptosis vs necrosis), and cell signalling - with the musculoskeletal relevance of each.
Ceramic Bearing Surfaces in Arthroplasty β Alumina and zirconia ceramics in total joint replacement: structure, properties, wear characteristics, fracture risk, and clinical outcomes
Chondromyxoid Fibroma β Rare benign cartilaginous tumor with characteristic lobular myxoid matrix and eccentric metaphyseal location
Clinical Practice Guidelines β Comprehensive guide to clinical practice guidelines including development methodology, GRADE system, implementation, and critical appraisal in orthopaedic surgery.
Cobalt Chrome Alloys β Comprehensive guide to cobalt chrome alloys for FRCS examination
Common Pathogens in Orthopaedic Infections β Comprehensive guide to bacterial pathogens in orthopaedic infections including osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, and surgical site infections with antimicrobial susceptibility patterns
Common Statistical Tests β Comprehensive guide to common statistical tests in orthopaedic research including t-tests, ANOVA, chi-square, and regression, with guidance on test selection.
Composite Materials and PEEK in Orthopaedics β Fellowship-level guide to composite biomaterials and PEEK: what a composite is (matrix plus reinforcement, e.g. carbon-fibre-reinforced PEEK; bone itself as a natural composite), the properties of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) - an elastic modulus close to bone, radiolucency and biocompatibility - its bioinert limitation requiring surface modification, and its orthopaedic uses (interbody cages, trauma plates).
Corticosteroids β Exam-focused guide to corticosteroids in orthopaedics: how they work, the difference between systemic and intra-articular use, the major musculoskeletal side effects (glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis, osteonecrosis of the femoral head, tendon and soft-tissue effects), the evidence on intra-articular steroid injections, and the practical rules for safe use around surgery.
Deep Vein Thrombosis β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to DVT diagnosis and treatment in orthopaedic patients - Wells score, D-dimer interpretation, ultrasound, anticoagulation protocols, and a side-by-side global guideline comparison
Delirium Prevention β Comprehensive guide to delirium prevention, risk assessment, HELP protocol, and perioperative management for orthopaedic fellowship examinations
Denosumab β Exam-focused guide to denosumab in orthopaedics: the RANKL mechanism, how it differs from bisphosphonates, indications in osteoporosis and giant cell tumour of bone, dosing, the evidence for fracture prevention, and the critical rebound vertebral fracture risk after stopping plus the complications of hypocalcaemia, osteonecrosis of the jaw, and atypical femoral fracture.
Dermatomyositis & Polymyositis (Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathies) β Fellowship-level guide to the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies - dermatomyositis and polymyositis (and juvenile dermatomyositis) - autoimmune diseases of symmetric proximal muscle weakness with a raised creatine kinase, characteristic skin signs in dermatomyositis (heliotrope rash, Gottron's papules), and important systemic associations (interstitial lung disease and, in adults, occult MALIGNANCY) - covering diagnosis (myositis-specific antibodies, EMG, MRI, biopsy), the calcinosis of juvenile disease, and management with corticosteroids/immunosuppression and IVIG, framed around the orthopaedic relevance of weakness, contracture and calcinosis.
Diagnostic Test Statistics: Sensitivity, Specificity, PPV/NPV, Likelihood Ratios & ROC β Fellowship-level biostatistics guide to interpreting diagnostic tests: the 2x2 table, sensitivity and specificity (with SnNout/SpPin), the prevalence-dependence of PPV and NPV, likelihood ratios and post-test probability, and the ROC curve and AUC - worked with real orthopaedic examination data.
Dialysis-Related Amyloid Arthropathy (Beta-2 Microglobulin) β Fellowship-level guide to dialysis-related amyloidosis - deposition of beta-2 microglobulin amyloid in the osteoarticular tissues of long-term (especially long-vintage) haemodialysis patients - presenting with carpal tunnel syndrome, a chronic shoulder/large-joint arthropathy, flexor tenosynovitis/trigger fingers, destructive (erosive) spondyloarthropathy and subchondral bone cysts that predispose to pathological fracture - covering the pathophysiology (impaired beta-2 microglobulin clearance), the radiographic cysts, the reduced incidence with modern high-flux/ultrapure dialysis, and management (surgery for compression/instability; the cure is transplantation).
Distraction Osteogenesis β Principles and biology of bone lengthening through gradual distraction and the tension-stress effect
Dysbaric Osteonecrosis (Caisson Disease) β Evidence-based guide to dysbaric osteonecrosis: how nitrogen bubbles from decompression cause bone death in divers and compressed-air workers, its juxta-articular and shaft patterns, MRI and radiographic diagnosis, classification, and stage-directed management
Electrical Stimulation and Bone Healing (Direct/Capacitive/Inductive Coupling) β Fellowship-level guide to electrical and electromagnetic bone-growth stimulation: the piezoelectric/stress-generated-potential rationale, the three modalities (invasive direct current, non-invasive capacitive coupling, and inductive coupling/pulsed electromagnetic field), their mechanisms and indications (non-union, delayed union, spinal fusion, osteonecrosis), and the device-specific, compliance-dependent evidence.
Electrosurgery, Diathermy & Surgical Energy Devices β Fellowship-level guide to electrosurgery (diathermy) and surgical energy devices for the orthopaedic surgeon - how high-frequency alternating current cuts and coagulates tissue, the difference between monopolar (current passes through the patient to a return/dispersive electrode) and bipolar (current confined between forceps tips) diathermy, cut versus coagulation/blend waveforms, and the safety essentials (correct return-electrode placement, pacemaker/ICD precautions, alternative-site burns, surgical-fire risk and surgical-smoke hazards) - plus the principles of harmonic (ultrasonic) and advanced bipolar/RF/microwave devices.
Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) Protocols β Comprehensive guide to ERAS protocols in orthopaedic surgery - evidence-based perioperative optimization, multimodal analgesia, early mobilization for exam preparation
Epigenetics in Musculoskeletal Disease β Fellowship-level guide to epigenetics in musculoskeletal disease - heritable, potentially reversible changes in gene expression without alteration of the DNA sequence (DNA methylation, histone modification and non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs) - covering how epigenetic dysregulation contributes to osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and bone tumours, the concept of epigenetic clocks/ageing as biomarkers of degenerative musculoskeletal disease, and the emerging diagnostic and therapeutic (and regenerative) implications, framed for the orthopaedic exam.
Evidence-Based Orthopaedics and Critical Appraisal β Advanced orthopaedic guide to evidence-based practice and critical appraisal: PICO, study design, bias, effect size, confidence intervals, applicability, reporting guidelines and journal-club decision-making.
Ewing Sarcoma β Highly malignant small round cell bone tumor affecting children and adolescents, requiring multimodal treatment with chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation
Extensor Digitorum Longus Anatomy β Comprehensive anatomy of extensor digitorum longus muscle including origin, insertion, neurovascular supply, clinical relations, and surgical considerations for lower limb procedures
Fatigue Failure in Biomaterials β Mechanisms of cyclic loading failure, S-N curves, and endurance limits in orthopaedic implants
Foot Anatomy and Biomechanics (Arch, Windlass Mechanism, Gait Cycle) β Fellowship-level basic-science guide to the functional anatomy and biomechanics of the foot: the hindfoot/midfoot/forefoot, the longitudinal and transverse arches and their bony, ligamentous (plantar fascia, spring ligament) and muscular supports, the WINDLASS mechanism, the subtalar/transverse-tarsal coupling that converts the foot from a flexible shock absorber to a rigid lever, and the phases of the gait cycle.
Fracture Healing β Comprehensive guide to fracture healing including primary and secondary healing, phases, biology, and factors affecting union.
Gait Cycle Analysis β Comprehensive exam-focused review of Gait Cycle Analysis including clinical presentation, investigation, management, and key exam points
Gene Therapy and Tissue Engineering in Orthopaedics β Fellowship-level guide to regenerative orthopaedics: the tissue-engineering triad (cells, scaffold, signals), clinical examples such as autologous chondrocyte implantation and BMP-loaded constructs, the principles of gene therapy (viral vs non-viral vectors, in vivo vs ex vivo), and the challenges of vector safety, vascularisation and translation.
General Anaesthesia for Orthopaedic Surgery β Exam-focused guide to general anaesthesia in orthopaedics: the stages of a general anaesthetic, airway management and the difficult airway, induction and maintenance agents, the general versus regional anaesthesia debate for hip fracture, postoperative delirium, and the major complications every orthopaedic trainee must recognise.
Genetics & Modes of Inheritance in Orthopaedics β Fellowship-level basic-science guide to inheritance patterns and the genetics of musculoskeletal disease: autosomal dominant (achondroplasia, OI, Marfan, MHE, NF1), autosomal recessive, X-linked and mitochondrial inheritance, plus key concepts (penetrance, anticipation, mosaicism) - with the genes examiners expect.
Glucocorticoid-Induced & Secondary Osteoporosis β Fellowship-level guide to secondary osteoporosis: when to suspect it, the causes to screen for, and the management of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (GIOP) - mechanism, fracture-risk assessment and the 2022 ACR treatment algorithm (bisphosphonates, denosumab, anabolics).
Growth Factors in Bone Healing β Comprehensive guide to growth factors regulating bone healing, BMP family, VEGF, TGF-Ξ², PDGF, FGF, IGF roles, clinical applications, and therapeutic controversies for basic science viva preparation
Haemochromatosis Arthropathy β Comprehensive guide to the arthropathy of hereditary haemochromatosis - iron-overload joint disease, the pathognomonic MCP hook osteophyte, links with CPPD, metabolic screening and orthopaedic management for fellowship exam preparation
Highly Crosslinked & Vitamin-E Polyethylene (Advanced Bearings) β Fellowship-level guide to the polyethylene bearing in arthroplasty: why conventional UHMWPE wear and particle-induced osteolysis drive long-term failure, how highly crosslinked polyethylene (HXLPE) dramatically reduces wear (with strong hip registry evidence), the free-radical/oxidation trade-off of crosslinking, and the two stabilisation strategies - thermal treatment (remelting vs annealing) and vitamin-E (antioxidant) incorporation.
Hip Joint Biomechanics β Comprehensive analysis of hip joint biomechanics including joint reaction forces, muscle moment arms, gait mechanics, stability mechanisms, and clinical applications in total hip arthroplasty and hip pathology.
HIV and the Musculoskeletal System β Comprehensive guide to musculoskeletal manifestations of HIV infection including HIV-associated arthropathy, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis risk, avascular necrosis, perioperative considerations, occupational exposure and PEP, and fracture healing.
Hyperparathyroidism β Comprehensive guide to primary, secondary, and tertiary hyperparathyroidism - pathophysiology, bone effects, brown tumors, biochemistry, surgical indications for orthopaedic fellowship exams
Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy (incl. Pachydermoperiostosis) β Fellowship-level guide to hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (HOA) - the triad of digital clubbing, periostosis (periosteal new bone of the long bones) and arthralgia/joint effusions - in its primary form (pachydermoperiostosis, a genetic prostaglandin-pathway disorder, also with pachyderma/cutis verticis gyrata) and its far commoner secondary form (a paraneoplastic/systemic marker, classically of intrathoracic malignancy and suppurative lung disease) - covering recognition, the Schamroth sign, the bone scan/radiographic periostosis, and management directed at the underlying cause.
Hypoparathyroidism β Comprehensive guide to hypoparathyroidism - etiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation with tetany, biochemistry, orthopaedic manifestations, and perioperative management for fellowship exams
Iatrogenic Nerve Injury & Positioning Injuries in Orthopaedic Surgery β Fellowship-level guide to iatrogenic peripheral nerve injuries and intra-operative positioning injuries in orthopaedic surgery - the mechanisms (direct laceration, retraction/traction, compression, thermal, ischaemic and patient-positioning), the nerves most at risk by procedure (e.g. sciatic/femoral/superior gluteal/LFCN in hip surgery; ulnar at the elbow, common peroneal at the fibular neck, brachial plexus from positioning), strategies for prevention (positioning, padding, retractor discipline, limb-length awareness), and the recognition, work-up and management (and medico-legal framing) when a deficit occurs.
Immunology in Orthopaedics (Innate, Adaptive, HLA & Transplant Immunology) β Fellowship-level guide to the immune system for orthopaedic exams: innate immunity (complement, phagocytes, NK cells) and adaptive immunity (T cells, B cells/antibodies, MHC/HLA antigen presentation and memory), the mechanisms and types of allograft rejection, and the orthopaedic application - why processed bone allografts are weakly immunogenic and not HLA-matched while fresh osteochondral allografts are more immunogenic.
Implant and Fracture Biomechanics β Biomechanical principles governing fracture fixation, implant design, and load sharing in orthopaedic surgery
Inferior Gluteal Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level guide to the inferior gluteal nerve: the sole motor nerve to gluteus maximus (L5-S2), its exit below piriformis through the greater sciatic foramen, its entry into the deep surface of gluteus maximus about 5 cm from the greater trochanter, the resulting hip-extension deficit and gluteus maximus lurch if injured, and its vulnerability in the posterior hip approach (the safe split rule).
Intervertebral Disc Biology β Comprehensive overview of intervertebral disc anatomy, biomechanics, nutrition, and degeneration for Orthopaedic examination
Joint Reaction Forces β Biomechanical principles of joint reaction forces - calculation, magnitude across hip/knee/shoulder, and clinical implications for arthroplasty design
Knee Biomechanics β Fundamental biomechanical principles of the knee joint including tibiofemoral mechanics, patellofemoral tracking, ligament function, and clinical implications
Landmark Trials β Advanced orthopaedic guide to landmark trials across trauma, sports, arthroplasty, spine and paediatrics, including DRAFFT, PROFHER, FLOW, FAITH, HEALTH, FORCE, KANON, METEOR, FIDELITY, MOON, CRISTAL, EPCAT II and SPORT.
Lateral Antebrachial Cutaneous Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level guide to the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve (LABCN/LACN): the terminal sensory continuation of the musculocutaneous nerve that emerges lateral to the biceps tendon at the elbow (deep to the cephalic vein) to supply the lateral forearm; its course, the clinical vulnerability during distal biceps repair and antecubital venepuncture, and how its injury presents and is distinguished from other neuropathies.
Levels of Evidence β Comprehensive guide to levels of evidence framework including GRADE, Oxford CEBM, and application to orthopaedic decision-making.
Ligament Biology β Comprehensive review of ligament structure, composition, biomechanics, healing, and graft biology for orthopaedic surgery exams
Ligament Healing β Comprehensive guide to ligament healing phases, biology, and factors affecting repair for FRCS exam preparation
Local Anaesthetics β Exam-focused guide to local anaesthetics in orthopaedics: how they block sodium channels, the amide versus ester classes, onset and duration, maximum safe doses with and without adrenaline, why infected tissue is hard to anaesthetise, the role of liposomal bupivacaine, and how to recognise and treat local anaesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST) with lipid emulsion.
Local Antibiotic Delivery Systems β Comprehensive review of local antibiotic delivery methods including PMMA beads, calcium sulfate, and bioabsorbable carriers for orthopaedic infection management
Malignant Hyperthermia β Comprehensive guide to malignant hyperthermia: RYR1-mediated hypermetabolic crisis triggered by volatile anaesthetic agents and suxamethonium, covering pathophysiology, clinical recognition, dantrolene management, and relevance to orthopaedic anaesthesia.
Measures of Effect: Odds Ratio, Relative Risk, NNT & Effect Size β Fellowship-level biostatistics guide to measures of effect: relative risk, odds ratio, absolute and relative risk reduction, number needed to treat, hazard ratio, effect size and confidence intervals - how to calculate, interpret and tell them apart, worked with real orthopaedic trial data.
Medication-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaw (MRONJ) β Exam-focused guide to medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ): definition, staging (AAOMS), risk with bisphosphonates and denosumab, why dental extractions trigger it, radiographic features, prevention, conservative versus surgical management, and the key viva distinctions between exposed bone, infection, and pathologic fracture.
Sclerosing Bone Dysplasias (Osteopetrosis, Pycnodysostosis, Osteopathia Striata, Sclerosteosis/Van Buchem) β Fellowship-level guide to the sclerosing bone dysplasias - a group of genetic disorders of increased bone density classified by the bone-formation pathway affected: dysplasias of endochondral bone (osteopetrosis, pycnodysostosis, osteopoikilosis, osteopathia striata, enostosis), of intramembranous bone (Camurati-Engelmann diaphyseal dysplasia; Van Buchem disease and sclerosteosis), and mixed (melorheostosis) - covering the radiographic patterns, the key clinical pitfalls (brittle dense bone, marrow failure, cranial-nerve compression), and orthopaedic management including the challenges of fracture fixation in dense bone.
Screw Biomechanics β Comprehensive guide to screw biomechanics including screw anatomy, pullout strength, lag screw technique, and locking versus non-locking screws for basic science viva preparation
Septic Arthritis β Comprehensive review of septic arthritis pathophysiology, diagnosis, and urgent management for orthopaedic fellowship examinations
Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy (Overview) β Fellowship-level overview of the seronegative spondyloarthritides: the HLA-B27-associated family (ankylosing spondylitis/axial SpA, psoriatic, reactive, enteropathic, juvenile), their shared features (enthesitis, dactylitis, inflammatory back pain, extra-articular manifestations), diagnosis, the IL-17/23 gut-joint biology, treatment ladder, and the orthopaedic hazard of the ankylosed spine.
Sjogren Syndrome - Musculoskeletal Manifestations β Fellowship-level guide to the musculoskeletal manifestations of Sjogren syndrome - a chronic autoimmune exocrinopathy (dry eyes and mouth from lymphocytic infiltration of lacrimal and salivary glands) - covering its very common arthralgia and a usually non-erosive inflammatory arthritis, the overlap with rheumatoid arthritis and other connective-tissue disease (primary vs secondary Sjogren), the myalgia/inflammatory myopathy, and the orthopaedic relevance of a seropositive (anti-Ro/anti-La) systemic disease behind joint symptoms, with management directed at symptoms and the systemic disease.
Skeletal Fluorosis & Other Toxic Osteopathies (Hypervitaminosis A/D, Aluminium Bone Disease) β Fellowship-level guide to the toxic osteopathies - principally skeletal fluorosis (chronic excess fluoride causing dense osteosclerosis, ligament/interosseous-membrane ossification and paradoxically fragile, low-quality bone), together with hypervitaminosis A (cortical hyperostosis/periostosis and bone pain), hypervitaminosis D (hypercalcaemia and metastatic calcification) and aluminium-related (renal osteodystrophy) bone disease (a low-turnover osteomalacia) - covering recognition on imaging, the diagnostic pitfall of 'dense but weak' bone, the surgical implications, and management by removing the toxin.
Smoking Cessation β Comprehensive guide to perioperative smoking cessation - impact on orthopaedic outcomes, timing, pharmacotherapy, and counseling strategies for exam preparation
Orthopaedic Surgical Instruments β Exam-focused guide to the orthopaedic instrument set: how to group the basic instruments (cutting, holding, retracting, bone-handling, power), how each is designed to do its job, the principles behind safe drilling and sawing (thermal necrosis), why sharps and power tools matter for infection and sharps injury, and how instruments are decontaminated and laid out - the practical knowledge basic-science and operative vivas test.
Spinal Cord & Vertebral Column Vascular Anatomy (Artery of Adamkiewicz) β Fellowship-level guide to the blood supply of the spinal cord: the single anterior spinal artery (anterior two-thirds) and paired posterior spinal arteries (posterior third), the segmental radiculomedullary feeders and the dominant artery of Adamkiewicz, the thoracic watershed, and anterior spinal artery (anterior cord) syndrome relevant to spine deformity and aortic surgery.
Statistical Power and Sample Size β Comprehensive guide to statistical power, sample size calculation, and ensuring adequate study design for detecting clinically meaningful differences.
Stem Cells & Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSCs) in Orthopaedics β Fellowship-level basic-science guide to stem cells in orthopaedics: stem-cell hierarchy, the ISCT definition of mesenchymal stromal cells, their sources (bone marrow, adipose, umbilical cord), trilineage differentiation, the paracrine/immunomodulatory mechanism of action, clinical applications (BMAC, cartilage, nonunion) and the regulatory and evidence caveats.
Stress Concentration β Geometric discontinuities creating localized stress elevation and their role in implant failure
Stress, Strain, and Elastic Modulus β Fundamental material properties, stress-strain relationships, elastic modulus, and mechanical testing principles
Study Design Types β Comprehensive guide to research study designs including RCTs, cohort studies, case-control studies, and observational designs used in orthopaedic research.
Surgical Site Infection Prevention (Perioperative) β Evidence-based strategies for preventing surgical site infections in orthopaedic surgery including antibiotic prophylaxis, skin preparation, sterile technique, and perioperative optimization protocols
Survival Analysis (Kaplan-Meier, Cox Regression, Implant Survivorship) β Fellowship-level guide to survival (time-to-event) analysis in orthopaedics: censoring, the Kaplan-Meier estimator and survivorship curves, the log-rank test, Cox proportional-hazards regression and the hazard ratio, the importance of endpoint definition, and the competing risk of death that can make Kaplan-Meier overestimate implant revision risk.
Synovial Fluid and Synovium β Comprehensive guide to synovium structure, synoviocyte types, synovial fluid composition, joint lubrication mechanisms, and clinical pathology for basic science viva preparation
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus - Musculoskeletal β Comprehensive orthopaedic guide to the musculoskeletal manifestations of SLE: Jaccoud arthropathy, multifocal avascular necrosis from corticosteroids, perioperative risk stratification, and antiphospholipid syndrome considerations for the surgeon.
Tendon Healing β Biology of tendon healing including phases, intrinsic vs extrinsic mechanisms, collagen synthesis, growth factors, and factors affecting healing outcomes
Tendon Structure and Composition β Comprehensive overview of tendon ultrastructure, molecular composition, hierarchical organization, and biomechanical properties essential for understanding tendon pathology and healing.
Tendon-Bone Interface (Enthesis) β Anatomy, biomechanics, and healing of the specialized fibrocartilaginous insertion between tendon and bone
The Surgical Sieve (Clinical Reasoning Framework) β Exam-focused guide to the surgical sieve and clinical reasoning: how to build a complete differential diagnosis with the VITAMIN CDEF / VINDICATE framework, dual-process thinking (fast pattern recognition versus slow analysis), the cognitive biases that cause diagnostic error, and how to use a structured sieve to score well in orthopaedic vivas and avoid missing diagnoses.
Blood Conservation / Patient Blood Management (Cell Salvage, Transfusion Thresholds, Jehovah's Witness) β Fellowship-level guide to patient blood management in orthopaedic surgery: the three pillars (optimise red cell mass, minimise blood loss, optimise anaemia tolerance), tranexamic acid as the cornerstone, intraoperative cell salvage, restrictive transfusion thresholds, pre-operative anaemia optimisation, and the planning needed for Jehovah's Witness patients who decline allogeneic blood.
Meniscus Structure and Function β Comprehensive overview of meniscal anatomy, biomechanics, and clinical significance for Orthopaedic examination
Moment Arms and Levers in Musculoskeletal Biomechanics β Fundamental principles of moment arms, lever systems, and mechanical advantage in the musculoskeletal system. Essential biomechanics for understanding force transmission, joint mechanics, and clinical applications in orthopaedic surgery.
Multimodal Analgesia β Comprehensive guide to multimodal analgesia principles, drug classes, protocols, and perioperative pain management for orthopaedic surgery
Muscle Injury and Healing β Comprehensive guide to skeletal muscle injury classification, healing phases, regeneration biology, and rehabilitation principles for Orthopaedic examination preparation
Muscle Physiology β Comprehensive review of skeletal muscle structure, contraction mechanisms, fiber types, motor unit physiology, and biomechanical properties essential for orthopaedic practice
Needlestick and Sharps Injury β Exam-focused guide to occupational needlestick and sharps injury in surgery: why orthopaedics is high risk, the per-injury transmission risk of hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV, what to do the moment you are stuck (first aid, risk assessment, source testing, post-exposure prophylaxis), and how double gloving, blunt needles and a no-touch technique prevent it.
Nerve Anatomy and Physiology β Comprehensive guide to nerve structure, fiber classification, action potential physiology, nerve injury patterns, and regeneration for basic science viva preparation
Nerve Injury and Regeneration β Comprehensive guide to peripheral nerve injury classification, Wallerian degeneration, chromatolysis, Schwann cell biology, axonal regeneration and factors affecting nerve repair for basic science viva preparation
NSAIDs in Orthopaedics β Student-first guide to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in orthopaedics: how COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition works, COX-2 selective versus non-selective agents, the gastrointestinal, renal, cardiovascular and bleeding side effects, the controversy over fracture healing, and the evidence for NSAIDs in heterotopic ossification prophylaxis and multimodal analgesia.
Ochronosis (Alkaptonuria Arthropathy) β Homogentisic acid accumulation, ochronotic pigment deposition, and the spine-first arthropathy of alkaptonuria
Orthopaedic Antibiotic Therapy β Exam-focused guide to antibiotic therapy for bone and joint infection: how antibiotics work, the agents and their bone penetration, biofilm and the role of rifampicin, route and duration of treatment, and the high-yield evidence from OVIVA, the Zimmerli rifampicin trial, and open-fracture data.
Osseointegration β Comprehensive guide to osseointegration mechanisms, surface modifications, implant stability, and clinical applications in orthopaedic surgery
Osteoarthritis Pathophysiology β Molecular and cellular mechanisms of cartilage degeneration, subchondral bone changes, and synovial inflammation in OA
Osteoblasts and Bone Formation β Comprehensive guide to osteoblast biology, differentiation, bone matrix synthesis, and regulation for basic science viva preparation
Osteochondroma β Benign cartilage-capped bone lesion, most common benign bone tumor
Osteoclasts and Bone Resorption β Understanding osteoclast function, regulation, and clinical implications in bone metabolism and pathology
Osteocytes and Mechanotransduction β Cellular mechanisms of bone mechanosensing and the role of osteocytes in bone homeostasis and adaptation
Osteomyelitis β Comprehensive review of osteomyelitis pathophysiology, microbiology, classification, and evidence-based management for orthopaedic fellowship examinations
Outcome Measures and PROMs β Comprehensive guide to outcome measures and Patient-Reported Outcome Measures (PROMs) in orthopaedic surgery including WOMAC, DASH, SF-36, and joint-specific scores.
Outpatient / Same-Day / Rapid-Recovery Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to outpatient and rapid-recovery joint arthroplasty: the enhanced-recovery (ERAS) bundle that makes same-day discharge possible, the patient-selection criteria that keep it safe, the evidence on success and complication rates, and the causes and risk factors for same-day-discharge failure.
P-Values and Confidence Intervals β Comprehensive guide to understanding p-values, confidence intervals, statistical significance, and clinical interpretation in orthopaedic research.
Paget's Disease of Bone β Comprehensive guide to Paget's disease - pathophysiology, biochemical markers, radiology, orthopaedic complications, medical and surgical management for fellowship exams
Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis β Comprehensive guide to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis in orthopaedic surgery including timing, agent selection, dosing, duration, and evidence-based protocols
Perioperative Anticoagulation Management β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to perioperative anticoagulation management in orthopaedic surgery - warfarin, DOACs, heparin bridging, and bleeding risk stratification
Perioperative Pharmacology: Anticoagulants and Antithrombotics β Fellowship-level guide to anticoagulant and antiplatelet pharmacology for the orthopaedic surgeon: the mechanisms of aspirin/P2Y12 inhibitors, heparin/LMWH, warfarin and the DOACs, their monitoring and reversal agents, and the perioperative principles of when to stop, whether to bridge, and how to manage urgent surgery (e.g. hip fracture).
Phantom Limb Pain and Amputation Pain β Comprehensive guide to phantom limb pain, residual limb pain and stump neuroma pain after amputation, including cortical reorganisation, prevention strategies and multimodal management.
Physis (Growth Plate): Anatomy & Physiology β Fellowship-level basic-science guide to the physis: the four histological zones (resting, proliferative, hypertrophic, provisional calcification), the dual blood supply, the perichondral ring of LaCroix and groove of Ranvier, the PTHrP-Ihh feedback loop, and why the hypertrophic zone is the plane of Salter-Harris failure.
Platelet-Rich Plasma (PRP) & Orthobiologics β Fellowship-level guide to PRP and orthobiologics: what PRP is and the growth factors it delivers, how it is prepared and classified (leukocyte-rich vs leukocyte-poor, PAW/Mishra), the level-1 evidence in knee osteoarthritis and tendinopathy, and the wider orthobiologics landscape (BMAC, MSCs, ACS) with its big caveat - lack of standardisation.
PMMA Bone Cement β Comprehensive guide to bone cement for FRCS examination
Polyethylene in Arthroplasty: UHMWPE and XLPE β Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and highly crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) bearing surfaces: structure, manufacturing, wear properties, and clinical outcomes
Preoperative Medical Optimization β Comprehensive exam-focused review of Preoperative Medical Optimization including clinical presentation, investigation, management, and key exam points
Pulmonary Embolism β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to pulmonary embolism in orthopaedic patients - PERC rule, Wells criteria, CTPA diagnosis, risk stratification (massive/submassive/low-risk), thrombolysis, and prevention
Pulmonary Risk Assessment β Comprehensive perioperative pulmonary risk assessment including OSA screening, COPD optimization, postoperative pulmonary complication prediction, and management strategies
Radiculopathy vs Peripheral Nerve Lesion β Comprehensive guide to differentiating nerve root (radiculopathy) from peripheral nerve and plexus lesions using dermatomal vs peripheral nerve territory mapping, myotome patterns, reflex changes, and electrodiagnostic findings.
Regional Anaesthesia Techniques β Comprehensive guide to regional anesthesia blocks including neuraxial, upper and lower extremity peripheral nerve blocks, ultrasound guidance, LAST management, and perioperative considerations for orthopaedic exam
Relapsing Polychondritis β Fellowship-level guide to relapsing polychondritis - a rare, immune-mediated disease of recurrent inflammation and progressive destruction of cartilage (auricular, nasal, laryngotracheal and articular) with systemic involvement - covering the hallmark bilateral auricular chondritis with sparing of the non-cartilaginous earlobe, the life-threatening laryngotracheal disease, the seronegative non-erosive arthritis, the diagnostic criteria (McAdam/Michet), associations (including ANCA-associated vasculitis and myelodysplasia/VEXAS), and management with corticosteroids and immunosuppression.
Reliability and Validity (Kappa, ICC, Bland-Altman) β Fellowship-level guide to reliability and validity in orthopaedic research: the distinction (precision vs accuracy), intra- and inter-observer reliability, Cohen's/Fleiss' kappa for categorical agreement (with the Landis-Koch interpretation), the intraclass correlation coefficient for continuous data, the Bland-Altman plot for method comparison, why correlation is not agreement, and the validity types - applied to fracture classifications and outcome measures.
Sarcoidosis - Musculoskeletal Manifestations β Fellowship-level guide to the musculoskeletal manifestations of sarcoidosis - a multisystem non-caseating granulomatous disease - covering acute sarcoid arthropathy (Lofgren syndrome: ankle periarthritis + erythema nodosum + bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, usually self-limiting) versus chronic arthritis, granulomatous myopathy (often clinically silent), osseous sarcoidosis (classically lace-like lytic lesions of the hands/feet phalanges), and the indirect skeletal effects of hypercalcaemia/osteoporosis - with the role of MRI, the differential, and management directed at the systemic disease.
Shoulder Biomechanics β Fundamental biomechanical principles of the glenohumeral joint including stability mechanisms, rotator cuff function, scapulothoracic motion, and force couples
Spinal Biomechanics β Fundamental biomechanical principles of the spine including motion segments, load distribution, and clinical implications for surgical practice
Targeted Muscle Reinnervation (TMR) & Regenerative Peripheral Nerve Interface (RPNI) β Fellowship-level guide to TMR and RPNI: modern surgical techniques that give a cut nerve 'somewhere to go' to prevent and treat amputation neuroma and phantom limb pain, improve myoelectric prosthesis control, their evidence, and how they differ from traditional neuroma management.
Teriparatide β Exam-focused guide to teriparatide in orthopaedics: what it is (recombinant PTH 1-34), the anabolic mechanism that builds bone, why intermittent dosing differs from continuous PTH excess, indications in severe osteoporosis, the evidence for fracture reduction, the role in fracture healing and atypical femoral fractures, the duration limit and osteosarcoma concern, and the must-do sequencing with anti-resorptives.
Thromboprophylaxis β Comprehensive guide to venous thromboembolism prevention in orthopaedic surgery including risk stratification, prophylaxis protocols, and evidence-based guidelines.
Titanium Alloys β Comprehensive guide to titanium alloys for FRCS examination
Tourniquet Use in Orthopaedic Surgery β Exam-focused guide to the surgical pneumatic tourniquet: how it works, how to set safe cuff pressure (limb occlusion pressure), correct application and exsanguination, safe inflation time, the evidence in knee replacement, and the key complications (nerve injury, post-tourniquet syndrome, ischaemia-reperfusion) plus the contraindications you must know.
Tranexamic Acid Use β Comprehensive guide to tranexamic acid - mechanism, evidence, dosing protocols, safety, and clinical applications in arthroplasty, trauma, and spine surgery for orthopaedic exam
Tribology and Wear in Orthopaedic Implants β Fundamental principles of friction, lubrication, and wear mechanisms in total joint arthroplasty including osteolysis and strategies for wear reduction
Type I and Type II Errors β Comprehensive guide to Type I (false positive) and Type II (false negative) errors, alpha and beta thresholds, and their clinical implications in research.
Vasculitides (Polyarteritis Nodosa / GPA) - Orthopaedic Relevance β Fellowship-level guide to the systemic vasculitides relevant to orthopaedics - inflammatory disorders of blood vessels classified by vessel size (large: giant-cell/Takayasu; medium: polyarteritis nodosa; small/ANCA-associated: granulomatosis with polyangiitis [GPA], microscopic polyangiitis, EGPA) - covering their musculoskeletal manifestations (arthralgia/arthritis, myalgia), the limb-threatening consequences of ischaemia (digital/peripheral gangrene, mononeuritis multiplex), the danger of misdiagnosing a vasculitic limb as primary orthopaedic disease, and the principle that recognition leads to urgent immunosuppression rather than surgery alone.
Viscoelasticity β Comprehensive guide to viscoelastic behavior in orthopaedic biomaterials and tissues for FRCS exam preparation
Wear Mechanisms in Orthopaedic Implants β Comprehensive guide to wear types affecting orthopaedic bearing surfaces including adhesive, abrasive, fatigue, and third-body wear for FRCS exam preparation
Wells Score for Deep Vein Thrombosis β The Wells clinical prediction rule for estimating pre-test probability of deep vein thrombosis β the nine-point score, DVT-likely versus DVT-unlikely stratification, and how it guides D-dimer versus duplex ultrasound.
Wound Closure Techniques β Exam-focused guide to surgical wound closure: the layered approach, suture materials (absorbable vs non-absorbable, monofilament vs braided), the common suture techniques (simple interrupted, continuous, mattress, subcuticular), staples, tissue adhesives and adhesive strips, how to choose between them, and the principles of a tension-free, well-apposed, low-infection closure relevant to orthopaedic surgery.
Wound Healing β Exam-focused guide to soft-tissue and skin wound healing: the four overlapping phases (haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, remodelling), the key cells and growth factors, healing by primary versus secondary intention, the factors that impair healing, and the practical and surgical relevance for orthopaedic wounds.
Adhesive Capsulitis (Frozen Shoulder) β Exam-focused guide to adhesive capsulitis (frozen shoulder): what it is, the inflammation-then-fibrosis pathology of the capsule, the three clinical stages, how it is a clinical diagnosis with global loss of passive external rotation, the link with diabetes, the evidence behind injection, physiotherapy, hydrodilatation, manipulation under anaesthesia and arthroscopic capsular release, and the practical rules for the exam.
Adult Brachial Plexus Injury β Exam-focused guide to adult traumatic brachial plexus injury: applied anatomy of the five-section plexus, preganglionic versus postganglionic injury, the supraclavicular versus infraclavicular patterns, how to examine and image (clinical signs, CT myelography, MRI), why timing of surgery matters, and the reconstructive ladder of neurolysis, nerve graft, nerve transfer and free functioning muscle transfer.
Allman/Neer Classification of Clavicle Fractures β The Allman three-group classification by location and the Neer subtype system for lateral third fractures β prevalence, displacement patterns, nonunion risk, and when to fix.
ALPSA Lesions β Comprehensive guide to Anterior Labroligamentous Periosteal Sleeve Avulsion (ALPSA), a variant of Bankart lesion characterised by medialized healing.
Animal Bites β Comprehensive guide to the management of animal bites, focusing on microbiology, antibiotic prophylaxis, and surgical indications.
Anterior Interosseous Nerve Anatomy β Comprehensive guide to the Anatomy of the Anterior Interosseous Nerve (AIN), including its course, innervation, variants (Martin-Gruber), and clinical syndrome (Kiloh-Nevin).
Anterior Interosseous Nerve Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to anterior interosseous nerve syndrome including anatomy, clinical presentation, differential diagnosis with Parsonage-Turner syndrome, and management from observation to surgical decompression.
Anterior Interosseous Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to anterior interosseous syndrome including OK sign weakness, isolated motor palsy, and surgical treatment options.
Axillary Nerve Anatomy β Comprehensive guide to the anatomy, clinical assessment, and management of Axillary Nerve injuries
Blood Supply of the Forearm β Comprehensive anatomy of the Radial and Ulnar arteries, their branches, anastomoses, and clinical relevance.
Boutonniere Deformity β Comprehensive guide to Boutonniere Deformity (Central Slip rupture), covering anatomy, Elson's test, and management protocols.
Brachial Plexus Anatomy β Fellowship-level anatomy of the brachial plexus: roots, trunks, divisions, cords and terminal branches; the branch at each level; Erb's vs Klumpke's palsy; and the supraclavicular/infraclavicular surgical map.
Bristow-Latarjet Procedure β Comprehensive guide to the Bristow and Latarjet coracoid transfer procedures for anterior shoulder instability with bone loss, including indications, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes.
Camptodactyly β Comprehensive guide to camptodactyly including classification, pathoanatomy, clinical presentation, conservative management with splinting, surgical indications, and FRACS exam preparation.
Carpal Boss (Carpometacarpal Boss) β Fellowship-level guide to the carpal boss (carpe bossu) - a symptomatic bony prominence on the dorsum of the wrist at the second/third carpometacarpal joints (a localised osteoarthritic osteophyte/exostosis at the base of the index/middle metacarpal and adjacent trapezoid/capitate) - covering its presentation as a fixed, hard dorsal lump distinct from a ganglion, the diagnosis (the 'carpal boss view'/CT), and a non-operative-first management with simple excision of the exostosis for refractory pain (fusion reserved for secondary CMC instability).
Carpal Instability - DISI/VISI β Comprehensive guide to dorsal and volar intercalated segment instability patterns - classification, diagnosis, and management for orthopaedic exam preparation
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to carpal tunnel syndrome, including anatomy, diagnosis, electrodiagnostic criteria, and surgical release techniques for FRACS exam preparation
Central Slip Injuries β Comprehensive guide to central slip extensor tendon injuries of the finger, including diagnosis, treatment, and boutonniere deformity prevention.
Charcot (Neuropathic) Joint of the Elbow β Fellowship-level guide to the Charcot (neuropathic) joint of the elbow - a progressive, destructive arthropathy of an insensate joint - whose classic cause is SYRINGOMYELIA (and other causes of upper-limb sensory loss), presenting with a strikingly swollen, often relatively painless, unstable elbow with marked radiographic destruction/debris - covering the work-up (notably MRI of the cervical spine for a syrinx), the differential from infection and tumour, and the largely supportive management.
Cleft Hand β Comprehensive guide to cleft hand (typical and atypical ectrodactyly) including Manske-Halikis classification, associated syndromes, functional assessment, and surgical reconstruction for FRACS examination.
Clinodactyly β Comprehensive guide to clinodactyly including delta phalanx, bracket epiphysis, associated syndromes, indications for surgery, and corrective osteotomy techniques for Orthopaedic examination.
Complex Metacarpophalangeal Joint Dislocation β Comprehensive guide to irreducible dorsal metacarpophalangeal joint dislocations, including Kaplan lesion, volar plate interposition, pathognomonic signs, and surgical approaches for reduction.
Congenital Clasped Thumb β Fellowship-level guide to congenital clasped thumb - a progressive flexion and adduction deformity of the thumb (held flexed/adducted into the palm) caused by a deficient or absent extensor mechanism (extensor pollicis brevis/longus), often with first-web narrowing and metacarpophalangeal-joint laxity - covering the supple vs complex (rigid) classification, the syndromic associations, and a management algorithm of early splinting first (effective for flexible types) and surgical reconstruction (tendon transfer, web release, capsular stabilisation) for complex or splint-resistant thumbs.
Crystalline Arthropathy of the Hand β Comprehensive guide to crystalline arthropathies affecting the hand including gout and CPPD, clinical presentation, crystal identification, medical management, and surgical indications for tophaceous gout and chronic arthropathy.
Cubital Tunnel Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to cubital tunnel syndrome including McGowan grading, Froment's and Wartenberg's signs, and surgical treatment options.
Cuff Tear Arthropathy Management Algorithm (Hamada) β Fellowship-level guide to rotator cuff tear arthropathy: the end-stage of a massive, chronic, irreparable rotator cuff tear with loss of the force couple, superior migration of the humeral head, acetabularization of the acromion and femoralization of the humeral head; the Hamada radiographic grading (and Seebauer classification), and the management algorithm from conservative care and joint-preserving arthroscopy to reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (the standard of care).
Cutibacterium acnes Shoulder Periprosthetic Infection β Comprehensive guide to Cutibacterium acnes periprosthetic joint infection of the shoulder, including diagnosis, microbiology, surgical management, and antibiotic strategies.
De Quervain Tenosynovitis β Comprehensive guide to first dorsal compartment stenosing tenosynovitis
Deep Space Infections - Hand β Comprehensive examination guide to deep space infections of the hand including anatomical spaces, clinical presentations, surgical drainage techniques, and antibiotic management
Deltoid Rupture / Avulsion β Fellowship-level guide to deltoid muscle rupture/avulsion - an uncommon injury, most often IATROGENIC (notably anterior-deltoid detachment after open or arthroscopic acromioplasty/cuff surgery), occasionally traumatic or secondary to massive rotator cuff failure - covering the resulting deltoid insufficiency (weakness, pain, anterosuperior escape), the diagnosis, and the difficult surgical repair/reconstruction with the key principle that deltoid origin must be protected and meticulously repaired at the time of shoulder surgery.
Digit and Hand Replantation β Comprehensive exam guide to digit and hand replantation - indications and absolute/relative contraindications, warm and cold ischaemia times for digits and the proximal upper limb, the classical sequence of repair (bone, extensor, flexor, artery, nerve, vein), microvascular anastomosis technique, anticoagulation, post-operative monitoring and salvage of the failing replant, Chen and Tamai functional outcome criteria, and the decision-making between replantation and revision amputation for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Digital & Ulnar Artery Aneurysm and Hypothenar Hammer Syndrome β Fellowship-level guide to upper-limb arterial aneurysms of the hand - chiefly the ulnar artery aneurysm of hypothenar hammer syndrome (repetitive palmar trauma damaging the ulnar artery in Guyon's canal, causing a pulsatile hypothenar mass, distal embolisation and digital ischaemia) and true/false digital artery aneurysms - covering the role of the Allen test and the palmar arch, imaging (duplex/angiography), and management from smoking/trauma avoidance to resection with ligation, vein-graft reconstruction or endovascular treatment.
Digital Nerve Compression β Comprehensive guide to Digital Nerve Compression syndromes, including Bowler's Thumb, Harpist's Finger, and their management.
DIP Joint Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to distal interphalangeal joint arthritis - classification, clinical assessment, non-operative and surgical management including arthrodesis and arthroplasty.
DRUJ Arthritis (Distal Radioulnar Joint Arthritis) β Degenerative or post-traumatic arthritis of the distal radioulnar joint causing ulnar-sided wrist pain and forearm rotation limitation, managed with conservative measures or surgical procedures including DRUJ arthroplasty and salvage procedures
Dupuytren's Disease β Comprehensive guide to Dupuytren's contracture: pathophysiology, classification, surgical indications, treatment options, and recurrence management for FRACS exam preparation
Eaton-Littler Staging of Thumb CMC Arthritis β The Eaton-Littler radiographic classification for thumb carpometacarpal (trapeziometacarpal) arthritis β stages I to IV, scaphotrapezial involvement, and how staging guides ligament reconstruction versus trapeziectomy.
Elbow Interposition / Distraction Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to interposition (and distraction interposition) arthroplasty of the elbow: a joint-preserving, bone-preserving alternative to total elbow arthroplasty for the young, high-demand patient with end-stage (usually post-traumatic) elbow arthritis; the technique (resurfacing the debrided distal humerus with an interposed soft-tissue graft, with or without a hinged distraction external fixator), the central importance of elbow stability, the modest but useful outcomes, and conversion to total elbow arthroplasty.
Epidermal (Epidermoid) Inclusion Cyst of the Hand β Fellowship-level guide to the epidermal inclusion cyst of the hand: a benign keratin-filled cyst that follows traumatic implantation of epidermis, presenting as a firm subcutaneous nodule (or an intraosseous lytic lesion of the distal phalanx) - covering pathogenesis, the differential (ganglion, GCTTS, enchondroma, osteomyelitis), histology, and treatment by complete excision/curettage.
Extensor Pollicis Longus Rupture β Comprehensive guide to attritional rupture of the extensor pollicis longus tendon at the wrist, including pathogenesis after distal radius fracture and rheumatoid arthritis, diagnosis with the retropulsion (drumming) sign, and EIP-to-EPL tendon transfer reconstruction.
Extensor Tendon Injuries β Comprehensive guide to extensor tendon injuries for FRCS examination
Extensor Tendon Reconstruction β Comprehensive guide to extensor tendon reconstruction including zone-specific techniques, tendon transfers, grafting options, and rehabilitation protocols for chronic extensor deficiency.
Felon β Closed-space infection of the pulp of the distal phalanx - surgical emergency requiring urgent drainage to prevent osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, and flexor tenosynovitis
Fingertip Injuries & Amputations β Comprehensive guide to the management of fingertip injuries, including nail bed repair, local flaps (Atasoy, Moberg, Cross-Finger), and subungual hematomas.
Flexor Carpi Radialis (FCR) Tendinitis β Fellowship-level guide to flexor carpi radialis (FCR) tendinopathy/tendinitis - a volar-radial wrist pain syndrome arising where the FCR runs in its tight fibro-osseous tunnel against the trapezial ridge and scaphoid tuberosity, often associated with trapeziometacarpal (basal thumb) osteoarthritis and seen as a complication of trapeziometacarpal suspension arthroplasty - covering its anatomy, the differential with de Quervain's and scaphotrapezial arthritis, and a non-operative-first management with surgery (tunnel release/debridement) for refractory cases.
Flexor Tendon Lacerations β Comprehensive guide to flexor tendon injury zones, repair, and rehabilitation for FRCS exam preparation
Flexor Tendon Rehabilitation β Evidence-based rehabilitation protocols for flexor tendon repairs across all zones, including early active mobilization, passive motion, and place-and-hold techniques
Flexor Tendon Repair Techniques β Detailed guide to flexor tendon repair, focusing on suture techniques (Kessler, Adelaide), strand numbers, and zone-specific management.
Flexor Tenosynovitis β Comprehensive guide to suppurative flexor tenosynovitis for FRCS examination
Flexor-Pronator Mass Strain / Tendinopathy β Fellowship-level guide to flexor-pronator mass injury at the medial elbow - strain, tendinopathy ('golfer's/medial epicondylitis') or, in throwers, partial tearing of the common flexor-pronator origin - covering its role as a dynamic stabiliser against valgus stress (protecting the ulnar collateral ligament), the overlap and crucial distinction from UCL injury and ulnar neuritis in the throwing athlete, the diagnosis, and management from rest/rehabilitation to (rarely) surgery.
Frostbite (Cold Injury) β Advanced orthopaedic guide to frostbite of the hand and foot, covering pathophysiology, the freeze-thaw injury, field and hospital rewarming, classification, thrombolysis and iloprost, bone scanning, delayed amputation and rehabilitation.
Gamekeeper's Thumb β Comprehensive guide to thumb UCL injuries for Orthopaedic examination
Ganglion Cysts β Comprehensive guide to ganglion cyst diagnosis, aspiration, and surgical excision for FRCS exam preparation
Glomus Tumors of the Hand β Comprehensive guide to glomus tumors including diagnosis, imaging, and surgical excision techniques for subungual and extraungual locations
Glomus Tumour of the Hand β Comprehensive guide to subungual and digital glomus tumours - benign neuromyoarterial hamartomas causing the classic triad of pain, cold sensitivity and pinpoint tenderness, with Love and Hildreth clinical signs, MRI and marginal excision.
HAGL Lesions β Comprehensive guide to Humeral Avulsion of the Glenohumeral Ligament (HAGL), including the MRI 'J Sign', West Point Classification, and surgical management.
Hand Examination and Clinical Localisation β An advanced orthopaedic guide to examining the hand and localising pathology from clinical findings, including tendon testing, nerve localisation, sensory testing, deformity analysis, investigations and urgent decision-making.
Herbert Classification of Scaphoid Fractures β The Herbert classification system for scaphoid fractures β types A through D, the distinction between stable and unstable acute fractures, and how it guides conservative versus screw fixation.
Herpetic Whitlow β Fellowship-level guide to herpetic whitlow: a herpes simplex virus infection of the fingertip that mimics a felon or paronychia but must NOT be incised - covering the HSV-1/HSV-2 aetiology and at-risk groups, the grouped-vesicle presentation, the critical differentiation from a bacterial felon, diagnosis, supportive/antiviral management, and complications including autoinoculation and recurrence.
High-Pressure Injection Injury of the Hand β Advanced orthopaedic guide to high-pressure injection injury of the hand, including recognition, material risk, imaging, emergency management, operative debridement, complications and rehabilitation.
Human Bites & Fight Bites β Comprehensive guide to the management of human bites, specifically 'Fight Bites' (Clenched Fist Injuries), outlining the unique microbiology and surgical urgency.
Hypothenar Hammer Syndrome β Fellowship-level guide to hypothenar hammer syndrome: repetitive blunt trauma to the ulnar artery over the hook of hamate causing thrombosis, aneurysm and digital embolisation - the occupational vascular cause of ulnar-sided digital ischaemia, its workup (Allen's test, angiography, the corkscrew sign) and management.
Inflammatory Arthritis of the Shoulder β Comprehensive guide to Rheumatoid Arthritis and other inflammatory conditions of the shoulder - pathology, classification, and surgical management
Intersection Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to proximal and distal intersection syndrome of the dorsal wrist - an overuse tenosynovitis distinct from de Quervain disease
Jersey Finger β Comprehensive guide to Jersey Finger (FDP Avulsion), including Leddy-Packer classification, surgical repair techniques, and rehabilitation.
KienbΓΆck's Disease β Comprehensive guide to KienbΓΆck's disease including staging, pathophysiology, investigation with MRI, and treatment options from immobilization to salvage procedures.
Latarjet Procedure β Comprehensive exam guide to the Latarjet coracoid transfer for recurrent anterior shoulder instability with glenoid bone loss - the triple-blocking effect of Patte, glenoid bone-loss thresholds and the glenoid track, the Instability Severity Index Score (ISIS), deltopectoral approach, operative technique, complications and long-term outcomes for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Latissimus Dorsi (and Teres Major) Rupture β Fellowship-level guide to latissimus dorsi and teres major tendon ruptures - uncommon injuries of the posterior axillary fold seen in throwing/overhead and high-demand athletes (and water-skiers), presenting with acute posterior-axillary pain, bruising and a palpable defect/weakness of extension/adduction/internal rotation - covering the spectrum from strain to complete avulsion, the role of MRI, and the management debate between non-operative treatment (good for many, especially recreational athletes) and surgical repair (for complete avulsions in high-demand athletes).
Long Thoracic Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level anatomy of the long thoracic nerve: C5-C7 origin, its long superficial course on serratus anterior, why it is vulnerable, and the medial scapular winging that follows injury.
Macrodactyly β Rare congenital anomaly characterized by localized gigantism of digits, requiring staged surgical management and multidisciplinary care
Madelung Deformity β Exam-focused guide to Madelung deformity of the wrist: the abnormal distal radial physis and Vickers ligament, the link with Leri-Weill dyschondrosteosis and SHOX gene defects, how the radius deforms in three planes, the classic radiographic measurements, and how treatment is chosen between Vickers ligament release with physiolysis in the growing child and dome osteotomy or salvage in the mature wrist.
Mallet Finger β Comprehensive guide to the diagnosis and management of Mallet Finger (Tendinous and Bony), including splinting protocols and surgical indications.
Mason Classification of Radial Head Fractures β The Mason classification for radial head fractures β Type I undisplaced, Type II displaced, Type III comminuted, and Type IV with associated elbow dislocation β and how it guides ORIF versus arthroplasty decisions.
Massive Rotator Cuff Tears β Comprehensive guide to massive rotator cuff tears and treatment options for FRCS exam preparation
MCP Joint Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to MCP joint arthritis including rheumatoid arthritis, post-traumatic arthritis, primary OA, clinical presentation, non-operative management, and surgical options including arthroplasty and arthrodesis for orthopaedic fellowship exam preparation.
Median Nerve Anatomy β Comprehensive guide to the anatomy, compression syndromes, and clinical pathology of the Median Nerve
Sagittal Band Injuries β Comprehensive guide to sagittal band injuries of the hand, including diagnosis, surgical repair techniques, and rehabilitation protocols for Orthopaedic exam preparation.
Shoulder (Humeral Head) Resurfacing Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to humeral head resurfacing arthroplasty: a bone-preserving, stemless cap that resurfaces the humeral head while keeping the metaphysis and shaft, its appeal in younger patients, the technical pitfalls (oversizing/overstuffing and excessive lateral offset that accelerate glenoid wear), the dominant failure mode of glenoid erosion and pain when metal articulates with native glenoid, registry survivorship including pyrocarbon, and the relatively straightforward conversion to a stemmed implant.
Skin Grafting in the Hand β Fellowship-level guide to skin grafting in the hand: split- versus full-thickness grafts, the stages of graft take and why a well-vascularised bed is essential (grafts fail on bare bone/tendon/cartilage without periosteum/paratenon/perichondrium), donor-site selection (including glabrous skin for palmar defects), the reconstructive ladder, and the causes of graft failure (haematoma, infection, shear).
SLAC Wrist β Comprehensive guide to SLAC wrist - scapholunate advanced collapse including Watson staging, pathophysiology, surgical treatment options, four-corner fusion, and proximal row carpectomy for orthopaedic fellowship examination.
Small Joint Arthroplasty of the Hand β Comprehensive guide to metacarpophalangeal (MCP), proximal interphalangeal (PIP), and carpometacarpal (CMC) joint arthroplasty including silicone Swanson implants, surface replacement, pyrocarbon designs, indications, surgical techniques, and complications
Snapping / Subluxing Extensor Carpi Ulnaris (ECU) β Fellowship-level guide to extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU) tendon instability: subluxation/dislocation of the ECU out of its groove on the dorsal ulna when the subsheath tears, causing painful dorsoulnar snapping on supination - covering the anatomy, the provocative supination/ulnar-deviation test, dynamic ultrasound, conservative immobilisation in pronation, and subsheath repair/reconstruction.
Stemless / Short-Stem Shoulder Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to stemless and short-stem humeral components in anatomic total shoulder arthroplasty: the bone-preserving, metaphyseal-fixation rationale (preserve humeral bone, shorten operative time, avoid diaphyseal stem complications and stress shielding), the requirement for adequate proximal humeral bone quality, the comparable clinical outcomes with fewer radiolucent lines, and the ease of conversion to a stemmed implant at revision.
Sternoclavicular Joint Dislocation β Comprehensive guide to sternoclavicular joint dislocation, including anterior versus posterior types, mediastinal compromise in posterior dislocations, CT diagnosis, closed reduction, and reconstruction risks.
Subcoracoid Impingement β Fellowship-level guide to subcoracoid impingement of the shoulder: anterior shoulder pain from narrowing of the coracohumeral interval, with the subscapularis caught between the coracoid tip and the lesser tuberosity; its anatomy and the 'roller-wringer' effect, the coracohumeral distance on MRI, the provocative tests, the genuine controversy over whether it causes subscapularis tears, and the conservative-then-arthroscopic-coracoplasty management.
Subscapularis Anatomy β Detailed anatomy of the Subscapularis muscle, its critical role in shoulder stability, innervation, and clinical pathology.
Suprascapular Nerve Entrapment β Comprehensive guide to suprascapular nerve entrapment at the suprascapular and spinoglenoid notches, including ganglion cyst association, clinical presentation with infraspinatus wasting, EMG diagnosis, and surgical decompression techniques.
Swan Neck Deformity β Comprehensive guide to Swan Neck Deformity, covering Nalebuff classification, intrinsic tightness testing, and management strategies.
Symphalangism β Fellowship-level guide to symphalangism - a congenital failure of differentiation of the finger (or toe) joints producing ankylosis/stiffness of the interphalangeal joints, most often the proximal interphalangeal joint - covering its forms (proximal/true vs distal symphalangism, isolated vs syndromic), the genetics and syndromic associations, the characteristic clinical and radiographic features (absent flexion crease, no IP-joint motion), and the largely supportive management given the lack of a true joint to reconstruct.
Syndactyly β Comprehensive guide to syndactyly including classification, surgical timing, web space reconstruction, and associated syndromes for Orthopaedic examination.
Tendon Transfers for Radial Nerve Palsy β Comprehensive guide to radial nerve palsy management including tendon transfer surgery, functional restoration, and operative techniques
Tendon Transfers for Radial, Median and Ulnar Nerve Palsy β Comprehensive exam guide to tendon transfers for radial, median and ulnar nerve palsy covering principles of tendon transfer (one tendon one function, expendable donor, synergy, straight line of pull, supple joints), standard transfers for low and high radial nerve palsy (Pronator teres to ECRB, FCR to EPL, PL to EDC), median nerve palsy (opponensplasty, Camitz, FDS ring transfer), ulnar nerve palsy (claw correction with Zancolli, Stiles-Bunnell, Brand transfers, intrinsic replacement), timing and outcomes for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Charcot (Neuropathic) Arthropathy of the Shoulder β Fellowship-level guide to neuropathic (Charcot) arthropathy of the shoulder: the painless, grossly destructive glenohumeral joint of syringomyelia, its pathophysiology (loss of proprioception/protective sensation), the classic radiographic 'bag of bones' destruction, the crucial differential from tumour and infection, and the largely supportive management with surgery reserved for selected cases.
Meralgia Paraesthetica β Compression neuropathy of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve causing burning numbness and paraesthesia over the anterolateral thigh
Metacarpal Fractures β Comprehensive guide to metacarpal fractures for Orthopaedic examination
Midcarpal Arthritis β Comprehensive examination guide to midcarpal arthritis patterns, diagnostic evaluation, and surgical management including limited wrist fusions and total wrist arthroplasty
Midcarpal Instability β Non-dissociative carpal instability with abnormal motion between the proximal and distal carpal rows, presenting with a painful catch-up clunk and requiring dynamic clinical and fluoroscopic assessment
Milwaukee Shoulder (BCP Crystal Arthropathy) β Comprehensive guide to Milwaukee shoulder syndrome - a rapidly destructive basic calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite) crystal arthropathy of the shoulder in elderly women, covering crystal biology, alizarin red diagnosis, large bloody non-inflammatory effusions and management for fellowship exam preparation.
Mucous Cysts (Digital Mucoid Cysts) β Comprehensive guide to digital mucous cysts including pathophysiology, diagnosis, and surgical excision techniques with osteophyte removal
Musculocutaneous Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level anatomy of the musculocutaneous nerve: lateral cord origin (C5-C7), its course through coracobrachialis, the anterior-arm flexors it supplies, the lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm, and its role in elbow-flexion nerve transfers.
Nerve Repair Principles β Comprehensive guide to Peripheral Nerve Repair, including biology, classification, surgical techniques, and rehabilitation.
Nerve Transfers β Principles and common techniques for Nerve Transfer (Neurotization) in peripheral nerve and brachial plexus surgery.
Neuroma Management β Pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of painful neuromas, including modern techniques like RPNI and TMR.
Osteochondritis Dissecans of the Capitellum β Comprehensive guide to osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the capitellum in adolescent overhead athletes, including differentiation from Panner disease, MRI staging, and management from conservative rest to surgical fixation and cartilage restoration.
Paronychia (Acute & Chronic) β Fellowship-level guide to the commonest hand infection: acute bacterial paronychia versus chronic inflammatory paronychia, the run-around abscess, drainage technique, distinguishing herpetic whitlow and felon, and the chronic-paronychia management ladder.
Parsonage-Turner Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Parsonage-Turner syndrome (neuralgic amyotrophy): the classic painful-onset patchy upper-limb palsy, hourglass fascicular constrictions, MRI denervation, and observation-first management.
Pectoralis Major Rupture β Comprehensive guide to pectoralis major tendon rupture including mechanism, Tietjen classification, clinical assessment, imaging, and surgical management.
PIP Joint Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to PIP joint arthritis including anatomy, etiology, clinical assessment, conservative management, silicone arthroplasty, surface replacement, and arthrodesis.
Polydactyly β Comprehensive guide to polydactyly including preaxial thumb duplication, postaxial types, Wassel classification, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination.
Posterior Interosseous Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Posterior Interosseous Nerve (PIN) compression, including anatomy (Arcade of Frohse), clinical presentation (Finger Drop), and surgical decompression.
Posterolateral Rotatory Instability of the Elbow (PLRI) β Comprehensive guide to posterolateral rotatory instability of the elbow, including LUCL insufficiency, Horii circle injury pattern, clinical tests, imaging, and ligament reconstruction.
Preiser Disease β Comprehensive exam guide to Preiser disease (idiopathic osteonecrosis of the scaphoid): pathophysiology, Herbert-Lanzetta and Kalainov classifications, MRI diagnosis, and stage-based treatment from immobilization to vascularized bone graft and salvage.
Pronator Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to pronator syndrome including differentiation from carpal tunnel syndrome, compression sites, and surgical treatment.
Proximal Biceps Ruptures β Comprehensive guide to proximal long head of biceps tendon ruptures - anatomy, clinical assessment, Popeye deformity, tenotomy vs tenodesis decision-making
Proximal Row Carpectomy β Comprehensive exam guide to proximal row carpectomy (PRC) for SLAC and SNAC wrist arthritis and Kienbock disease - principle of capitate seating into lunate fossa, dorsal surgical approach, indications requiring intact capitate head and lunate fossa cartilage, PIN neurectomy, outcomes versus four-corner fusion, conversion to total wrist fusion, and evidence-based outcomes for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
Psoriatic Arthritis - Hand β Comprehensive examination guide to psoriatic arthritis affecting the hand and upper extremity, including diagnostic criteria, radiographic patterns, and surgical management strategies
Quadrangular & Triangular Spaces β Detailed anatomy of the posterior shoulder spaces, their boundaries, contents, and clinical syndromes.
Quadriga Effect & Lumbrical-Plus Finger β Fellowship-level guide to two classic flexor-tendon imbalance phenomena that share a common anatomical basis (the flexor digitorum profundus tendons arising from one common muscle belly, with lumbricals originating from the FDP tendons): the QUADRIGA effect - loss of active flexion and grip in the other fingers when one FDP is over-advanced, tethered or amputated - and the LUMBRICAL-PLUS finger - paradoxical IP-joint extension on attempted flexion when an FDP is divided, over-lengthened or grafted too long so its pull is transmitted through the lumbrical to the extensor mechanism.
Radial Nerve Anatomy β Comprehensive guide to the anatomy, course, branches, and clinical correlations of the Radial Nerve
Radial Tunnel Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to radial tunnel syndrome including PIN entrapment sites, clinical differentiation from lateral epicondylitis, diagnostic approach, and surgical decompression techniques for orthopaedic exam
Ray Amputation (Hand & Foot) β Fellowship-level guide to ray amputation/resection - removal of a digit together with all or part of its metacarpal or metatarsal - in the hand (for tumour, trauma, infection, ischaemia or a non-functional digit) and the foot (commonly for the diabetic/ischaemic forefoot) - covering border versus central ray resection, the central-ray reconstruction problem (gap closure to avoid a widened web and digital malrotation), foot-specific biomechanical consequences (transfer lesions), and the functional and aesthetic principles that guide the choice between ray amputation and digit-only or transmetatarsal options.
Raynaud's Phenomenon (Hand) β Fellowship-level guide to Raynaud's phenomenon of the hand: the triphasic colour change of digital vasospasm, the crucial distinction between primary Raynaud's disease and secondary Raynaud's phenomenon (especially systemic sclerosis), red flags and nailfold capillaroscopy/autoantibody workup, and a stepwise management from cold avoidance through calcium-channel blockers to prostacyclin and surgery for digital ischaemia.
Recurrent & Revision Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (and Endoscopic Release) β Fellowship-level guide to persistent, recurrent and revision carpal tunnel syndrome and to endoscopic carpal tunnel release - covering the three failure patterns (persistent = never resolved, often incomplete release; recurrent = relief then return, often perineural scarring; new/iatrogenic = nerve/branch injury), the systematic work-up of the failed release (re-confirm the diagnosis, re-image, electrodiagnostics), and revision options (complete open re-release with external neurolysis, and vascularised flap coverage for scarred nerves), plus the evidence on endoscopic versus open release.
Remplissage Procedure β Comprehensive guide to the arthroscopic remplissage procedure for engaging Hill-Sachs lesions in anterior shoulder instability, including glenoid track assessment, surgical technique, combined Bankart repair, outcomes, and stiffness.
Revision Total Elbow Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to revision total elbow arthroplasty: why primary TEAs fail (aseptic loosening, polyethylene bushing wear, periprosthetic fracture, infection and instability), the central problem of periprosthetic bone loss, the reconstruction options from bushing exchange and re-stemming to impaction grafting and allograft-prosthetic composite, the high complication burden, and the principles of managing the infected TEA.
Rheumatoid Arthritis of the Hand β Comprehensive guide to rheumatoid arthritis affecting the hand - pathophysiology, classification, medical and surgical management including synovectomy, arthroplasty, and arthrodesis
Ring Avulsion Injury β Fellowship-level guide to ring avulsion injuries of the finger: the traction-degloving mechanism, the Urbaniak (and Kay) classification, the prognostic importance of an intact PIP joint and FDS, the extended zone of vascular injury requiring vein grafts, and the decision between microvascular revascularisation/replantation and completion amputation.
Rockwood Classification of AC Joint Injuries β The Rockwood classification system for acromioclavicular joint injuries β types I to VI by ligament disruption and clavicle displacement, how to examine and image each grade, and when to operate.
Scaphoid Excision and Four-Corner Fusion β Comprehensive exam guide to scaphoidectomy and four-corner fusion for SLAC and SNAC wrist arthritis - indications, surgical technique including dorsal approach and fixation options (circular plate, K-wires, screws), preservation of radiolunate motion, outcomes compared with proximal row carpectomy, complications including nonunion and dorsal impingement, and evidence-based results for FRACS, FRCS and board examinations
TFCC and Ulnar-Sided Wrist Pain β Advanced orthopaedic guide to triangular fibrocartilage complex injury and ulnar-sided wrist pain, including anatomy, clinical localisation, imaging, Palmer and arthroscopic classifications, DRUJ stability, operative decision-making and rehabilitation.
The Intrinsic Hand: Intrinsic-Minus (Claw) and Intrinsic-Plus Deformity β Fellowship-level guide to intrinsic muscle function and the two opposite deformities: intrinsic-MINUS (claw hand - MCP hyperextension + IP flexion from intrinsic paralysis, e.g. ulnar palsy/leprosy) and intrinsic-PLUS (MCP flexion + IP extension from intrinsic tightness/spasticity) - covering the ulnar paradox, the Bouvier and Bunnell tests, and the splinting/tendon-transfer/release management.
The Rheumatoid Hand and Wrist β Comprehensive guide to rheumatoid arthritis of the hand and wrist, covering MCP volar subluxation, ulnar drift, swan-neck and boutonniere deformities, caput ulnae, Nalebuff thumb classification, tendon ruptures, and surgical sequencing.
The Six Dorsal Extensor Compartments of the Wrist β Fellowship-level anatomy reference for the six dorsal wrist extensor compartments beneath the extensor retinaculum: their tendon contents (1 APL/EPB, 2 ECRL/ECRB, 3 EPL, 4 EDC/EIP, 5 EDM, 6 ECU), Lister's tubercle, and the high-yield clinical correlations - de Quervain's (compartment 1), intersection syndrome, EPL rupture at the third-compartment watershed, and the ECU of the sixth compartment.
Thoracic Outlet Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (TOS), including Neurogenic, Venous, and Arterial types, anatomy of the thoracic outlet, and management strategies.
Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger's Disease) β Fellowship-level guide to thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger's disease) - a non-atherosclerotic, segmental, inflammatory occlusive disease of the small and medium arteries and veins of the extremities, strongly tied to tobacco, presenting in young smokers with distal ischaemia, digital ulceration/gangrene and migratory thrombophlebitis - covering its diagnosis (clinical criteria and the corkscrew-collateral angiogram), the absolute primacy of complete smoking cessation, and the role and limits of revascularisation and amputation in the hand and foot.
Thumb CMC Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to thumb carpometacarpal arthritis - anatomy, Eaton-Littler classification, grind test, trapeziectomy, LRTI, CMC arthroplasty, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Thumb Hypoplasia β Comprehensive guide to thumb hypoplasia including Blauth classification, associated syndromes, clinical assessment, reconstruction versus pollicization, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination.
Thumb Reconstruction: Pollicization & Toe-to-Hand Transfer β Fellowship-level guide to reconstructing the absent or deficient thumb: the Blauth classification of thumb hypoplasia, the type-IIIA/IIIB pivot on carpometacarpal stability, index-finger pollicization for the high grades, and toe-to-hand transfer for traumatic and congenital thumb loss.
Total Wrist Arthroplasty vs Arthrodesis (Wrist OA Reconstruction) β Fellowship-level guide to reconstruction of the arthritic wrist: the decision between total wrist ARTHRODESIS (the durable, reliable fusion - the historical benchmark for high-demand patients and salvage) and total wrist ARTHROPLASTY (motion-preserving, improved with fourth-generation implants but with loosening/instability risks and not for heavy manual labour); indications, the patient factors that drive the choice, outcomes, and the failed-arthroplasty-to-fusion conversion.
Trigger Finger (Stenosing Tenosynovitis) β Comprehensive guide to trigger finger including diagnosis, Green classification, injection technique, and surgical release.
Trigger Thumb (Pediatric) β Comprehensive Exam-ready guide to pediatric trigger thumb including Notta's node pathophysiology, observation vs surgical decision-making, A1 pulley release technique, and exam scenarios
Triscaphe Arthritis (STT Arthritis) β Degenerative arthritis of the scaphotrapeziotrapezoid joint causing radial-sided wrist pain, managed with activity modification, injections, or surgical options including excision arthroplasty and arthrodesis
Ulnar Club Hand (Ulnar Longitudinal Deficiency) β Complete guide to ulnar club hand including classification, surgical management, and functional outcomes in longitudinal upper limb deficiencies
Ulnar Impaction Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to ulnar impaction syndrome including positive ulnar variance, TFCC tears, ulnar shortening osteotomy, and wafer procedures.
Ulnar Nerve Anatomy β Comprehensive guide to the anatomy, course, branches, and compression syndromes of the Ulnar Nerve
Ulnar Nerve Palsy β Comprehensive guide to Cubital Tunnel Syndrome, Guyon's Canal Syndrome, and Ulnar Nerve mechanics.
Ulnar Tunnel Syndrome (Guyon's Canal) β Comprehensive guide to ulnar tunnel syndrome including anatomy of Guyon's canal, classification zones, diagnosis, and surgical decompression techniques.
Upper Limb Amputation β Comprehensive guide to upper limb amputation - level selection, finger to forequarter techniques, prosthetic considerations, targeted muscle reinnervation, replantation decisions for orthopaedic exam
Valgus Extension Overload of the Elbow β Comprehensive guide to posteromedial olecranon osteophyte impingement in throwing athletes, UCL insufficiency relationship, imaging, and surgical debridement considerations.
Wartenberg's Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to Wartenberg's Syndrome (Cheiralgia Paresthetica), involving entrapment of the Superficial Radial Nerve, identifying clinical features, and distinguishing it from De Quervain's Tenosynovitis.
Wrist Arthrodesis β Comprehensive guide to wrist arthrodesis - total vs four-corner fusion, SLAC/SNAC staging, surgical technique, fusion position, and outcomes
Wrist Arthroplasty β Comprehensive guide to total wrist arthroplasty - indications (RA, OA), implant types (Universal 2, Maestro, ReMotion), surgical technique, complications, and outcomes vs arthrodesis
ACDF - Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion β Comprehensive guide to anterior cervical discectomy and fusion including indications, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes for Orthopaedic examination
Adjacent Segment Disease β Comprehensive guide to adjacent segment disease after spinal fusion including pathophysiology, risk factors, prevention, and surgical management for Orthopaedic examination
Adult Spinal Deformity β Comprehensive guide to adult spinal deformity including SRS-Schwab classification, sagittal balance parameters, surgical planning, osteotomies, and outcomes for orthopaedic exam
Anderson-Montesano Classification of Occipital Condyle Fractures β The Anderson-Montesano system for classifying occipital condyle fractures β Types I, II, and III, CT diagnosis, stability assessment, and management of this easily missed upper cervical injury.
Ankylosing Spondylitis β Comprehensive guide to ankylosing spondylitis - inflammatory spondyloarthropathy, HLA-B27 association, spinal manifestations, fracture management, and orthopaedic considerations for fellowship exam preparation
AO Spine Thoracolumbar Injury Classification System β The AO Spine TLICS β the three morphologic types (A compression, B tension-band, C translation), neurologic status, and clinical modifiers that together guide operative decision-making for thoracolumbar trauma.
ASIA Impairment Scale (Frankel Scale) β The ASIA Impairment Scale (AIS) β the international standard for grading completeness of spinal cord injury from A (complete) to E (normal) β key muscle groups, sensory dermatomes, sacral sparing, and how to apply it in the exam.
Atlanto-Occipital Dislocation β Comprehensive guide to atlanto-occipital dislocation including Traynelis classification, radiographic measurements (Powers ratio, CCI, BDI), immediate management, and occipitocervical fusion.
Atlantoaxial Arthritis β Degenerative or inflammatory arthritis of the C1-C2 articulation causing occipitocervical pain and potential instability
Atlantoaxial Rotatory Subluxation β Comprehensive exam guide to atlantoaxial rotatory subluxation and fixation (AARS/AARF) - cock-robin torticollis, Grisel syndrome, Fielding-Hawkins and Pang classifications, dynamic CT diagnosis, traction reduction and C1-C2 fusion for orthopaedic exam
Baastrup Disease (Kissing Spine Syndrome) β Comprehensive guide to Baastrup disease - diagnosis, imaging features, pathophysiology, and management of kissing spine syndrome for FRACS exam
Basilar Invagination β Comprehensive guide to basilar invagination and basilar impression: cranial migration of the odontoid process into the foramen magnum, congenital and acquired aetiologies, radiographic lines, myelopathic presentation, and occipitocervical fusion.
Blood Loss Management in Spine Surgery β Fellowship-level guide to patient blood management in spine surgery: why spine (especially deformity) surgery causes high blood loss and the highest transfusion rates in orthopaedics, and the evidence-based multimodal strategy across the preoperative (anaemia/iron optimisation), intraoperative (tranexamic acid, hypotensive anaesthesia, prone positioning, haemostasis, cell salvage, staging) and postoperative (restrictive transfusion) phases.
Brucellosis of the Spine (Spinal Brucellosis) β Comprehensive guide to spinal brucellosis - endemic zoonosis causing spondylodiscitis, Pedro Pons sign, diagnosis with serology, prolonged antibiotic treatment for orthopaedic exam
Cauda Equina Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to cauda equina syndrome for FRCS examination
Cervical Disc Arthroplasty (CDA) β Comprehensive guide to cervical disc replacement for radiculopathy and myelopathy - patient selection, FDA-approved devices, surgical technique, outcomes vs ACDF, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
Cervical Disc Disease β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to cervical radiculopathy and disc herniation - diagnosis and management
Cervical Facet Arthropathy β Comprehensive guide to Cervical Facet Joint Syndrome, diagnosis via Medial Branch Blocks, and Radiofrequency Ablation.
Cervical Instability β Comprehensive guide to cervical instability including atlantoaxial instability, occipitoatlantal dislocation, subaxial instability, and surgical stabilization techniques.
Cervical Lateral Mass Fracture-Separation (Floating Lateral Mass) β Fellowship-level guide to the floating lateral mass (FLM) fracture of the subaxial cervical spine: a fracture through both the ipsilateral lamina and pedicle that disconnects the lateral mass (and its superior and inferior articular processes) from the vertebra, producing a highly unstable, often rotationally malaligned segment; its recognition on CT, the risk of blunt cerebrovascular (vertebral artery) injury, and operative versus selected non-operative management.
Cervical Myelopathy β Comprehensive guide to cervical myelopathy - cord compression, upper motor neuron signs, Nurick classification, surgical timing, anterior vs posterior approaches, and clinical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Cervical Radiculopathy β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to cervical radiculopathy - nerve root compression syndromes, dermatomal patterns, examination findings, imaging interpretation, conservative management, and surgical techniques including ACDF and posterior foraminotomy.
Cervical Spondylolisthesis β Comprehensive guide to cervical vertebral subluxation including degenerative, traumatic, and iatrogenic causes, with classification and fusion techniques.
Cervical Spondylosis β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to cervical spondylosis - degenerative disc disease, osteophyte formation, natural history, clinical presentation, imaging interpretation, and management strategies for age-related cervical spine degeneration.
Cervical Total Disc Replacement vs Fusion (and Posterior Foraminotomy) β Fellowship-level guide to the motion-preserving alternatives to anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF): cervical total disc replacement (CDR/arthroplasty) and posterior cervical foraminotomy. Covers indications and contraindications, the theoretical adjacent-segment advantage of motion preservation, what the randomised and registry evidence actually shows, and where posterior foraminotomy fits for foraminal soft-disc radiculopathy.
Chiari Malformation (Orthopaedic Relevance) β Exam-focused guide to Chiari I malformation for the orthopaedic surgeon: what it is, why the cerebellar tonsils matter for the spine, the syringomyelia link that drives atypical scoliosis and neuropathic (Charcot) joints, when to MRI the whole spine in scoliosis, the role of posterior fossa decompression before fusion, and the red flags you must not miss.
Coccydynia β Comprehensive guide to coccygeal pain including aetiology, dynamic radiographic assessment, injection therapy, and coccygectomy for refractory cases.
Conus Medullaris Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to conus medullaris syndrome: L1-L2 cord-tip lesion, early symmetric saddle anaesthesia, mixed UMN/LMN signs, and acute sphincter dysfunction.
Degenerative Disc Disease β Comprehensive guide to lumbar degenerative disc disease including diagnosis, conservative management, and surgical options.
Degenerative Spondylolisthesis β Comprehensive guide to degenerative spondylolisthesis: pathophysiology, classification, and management.
Denis Three-Column Classification of Spinal Fractures β The Denis three-column concept for thoracolumbar spine injuries β anterior, middle, and posterior columns; middle-column integrity as the arbiter of stability; and the four fracture patterns it defines.
Dermatomes, Myotomes & Spinal Nerve Root Anatomy β Fellowship-level guide to dermatomes and myotomes: the ISNCSCI key sensory points and key muscles, reflex levels, radiculopathy localisation, and the ASIA examination.
Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH) β Exam-focused guide to DISH (Forestier's disease): flowing anterior ossification, the Resnick criteria, the dangerous ankylosed-spine fracture, dysphagia, and how DISH differs from ankylosing spondylitis.
Discogenic Back Pain β Comprehensive guide to discogenic back pain - pathophysiology, diagnosis, conservative and interventional management including disc decompression and fusion surgery
Dropped Head Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to dropped head syndrome - diagnosis, classification, pathophysiology, and surgical management of cervical extensor weakness for FRACS exam
Facet Arthropathy β Comprehensive guide to lumbar facet joint osteoarthritis, including biomechanics, clinical presentation, diagnostic criteria, and treatment options from conservative management to surgical fusion.
Failed Back Surgery Syndrome β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) - definition, etiology including wrong level surgery and inadequate decompression, evaluation algorithm, scar tissue vs recurrent disc herniation, pain management, spinal cord stimulation, revision surgery indications, and prevention strategies.
Flatback Syndrome β Comprehensive FRACS exam guide to flatback syndrome - loss of lumbar lordosis, sagittal imbalance, pathophysiology, radiographic assessment (SVA, PI-LL mismatch), conservative management, and surgical correction with Smith-Petersen, PSO, and VCR osteotomies.
Fungal Spine Infections β Comprehensive guide to diagnosis and management of fungal spondylodiscitis including Aspergillus, Candida, and endemic mycoses
Hangman's Fracture β Traumatic spondylolisthesis of the axis (C2) - comprehensive guide covering mechanism, Levine-Edwards classification, stability assessment, and management for Orthopaedic examination
Intradural Extramedullary Tumors β Comprehensive guide to intradural extramedullary spinal tumors including schwannoma, meningioma, and neurofibroma - diagnosis, MRI features, and surgical management for FRACS exam
Intramedullary Spinal Tumors β Comprehensive guide to intramedullary spinal cord tumors including ependymoma, astrocytoma, and hemangioblastoma with surgical management for FRACS examination
Isthmic Spondylolisthesis β Comprehensive guide to isthmic spondylolisthesis - pars defect, Wiltse classification, Meyerding grading, and management for FRACS exam
Jefferson Fracture β Burst fracture of the C1 ring from axial loading - comprehensive guide covering biomechanics, classification, stability assessment, and management strategies for Orthopaedic examination
King Classification of Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis β Fellowship-level guide to the King (King-Moe) classification of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: the historical five-type system of thoracic curves devised to guide selective thoracic fusion in the Harrington-rod era, the meaning of each type (especially the controversial King II false double major), its well-documented limitations and poor reliability, and why it was superseded by the more comprehensive and reliable Lenke classification.
Levine-Edwards Classification of Hangman Fractures β The Levine-Edwards system for traumatic C2 spondylolisthesis (hangman fracture) β the four types by displacement, angulation and facet behaviour, and the management rule for each.
Low Back Pain: Assessment & Non-operative Management (Overview) β Fellowship-level overview of low back pain: the diagnostic triage (non-specific mechanical vs radicular vs serious pathology), the RED FLAGS for serious disease (including cauda equina), the yellow flags that predict chronicity, why routine imaging is harmful, and evidence-based non-operative management with the biopsychosocial model.
Lumbar Disc Arthroplasty (Total Disc Replacement) β Comprehensive guide to lumbar total disc replacement - indications, contraindications, implant designs, surgical technique, complications, and outcomes for FRCS exam preparation
Lumbar Disc Herniation β Comprehensive guide to lumbar disc herniation - epidemiology, disc anatomy, herniation types, radiculopathy, conservative vs surgical management, microdiscectomy technique, and recurrence prevention
Lumbar Fusion Techniques β Comprehensive guide to lumbar fusion approaches - PLIF, TLIF, ALIF, lateral interbody fusion - indications, techniques, outcomes, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
Lumbar Instability β Comprehensive guide to lumbar instability, including White and Panjabi criteria, radiographic assessment, clinical correlation, and fusion indications
Lumbar Laminectomy β Comprehensive guide to lumbar laminectomy for spinal stenosis - patient selection, surgical technique, with or without fusion decision, outcomes, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
Lumbar Microdiscectomy β Comprehensive guide to lumbar microdiscectomy for disc herniation - patient selection, surgical technique, outcomes, recurrence, and complications for orthopaedic surgery exam preparation
Lumbar Radiculopathy β Comprehensive guide to lumbar radiculopathy - nerve root patterns, dermatomal distributions, diagnosis, and management for FRACS exam
Lumbar Spinal Stenosis β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to lumbar spinal stenosis - pathophysiology, neurogenic claudication, clinical assessment, imaging interpretation, conservative management, and surgical techniques including laminectomy, laminoplasty, and interspinous process devices.
Lumbosacral Plexus Anatomy β Detailed anatomy of the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, their branches, relations to Psoas/Piriformis, and clinical implications.
Sacral Insufficiency / Stress Fracture β Fellowship-level guide to sacral insufficiency fractures: the osteoporotic 'great mimicker' in the elderly, the H-shaped (Honda sign) fracture pattern, why radiographs miss it and MRI is most sensitive, the imperative to exclude malignancy and treat the osteoporosis, and conservative-versus-surgical (sacroplasty/fixation) management.
Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction β Comprehensive guide to SI joint dysfunction diagnosis and management for FRCS exam preparation
Sacropelvic Fixation (S2-Alar-Iliac & Iliac Screws) β Fellowship-level guide to sacropelvic fixation in long spinal constructs: why fixation must extend to the pelvis to protect S1 screws and the lumbosacral junction, the iliac screw versus the S2-alar-iliac (S2AI) screw (in-line trajectory crossing the SI joint, fewer offset connectors), the biomechanical rationale, accuracy with robotic/navigated guidance, and the recognised complications including sacroiliac joint pain and screw failure.
Sagittal Balance Parameters β Comprehensive guide to spinopelvic sagittal balance parameters including pelvic incidence, sacral slope, pelvic tilt, SVA, lumbar lordosis, and their clinical applications for orthopaedic fellowship exam
Spinal Cord Monitoring (Intraoperative Neuromonitoring: SSEP, MEP, EMG, Wake-up Test) β Fellowship-level guide to intraoperative neuromonitoring in spine surgery: what SSEP, MEP and EMG each monitor and their alarm criteria, why multimodal monitoring is standard, the anaesthetic requirements (TIVA, no paralytics for MEP), the structured response to a signal change, and the Stagnara wake-up test.
Spinal Epidural Abscess β Comprehensive guide to spinal epidural abscess including the diagnostic triad, risk factors, urgent MRI evaluation, and emergent surgical decompression plus antibiotics.
Spinal Instability Neoplastic Score (SINS) β Comprehensive guide to the SINS classification for spine metastasis instability assessment - scoring components, clinical application, and surgical decision-making for FRACS exam
Spinopelvic Parameters β Comprehensive guide to spinopelvic parameters - pelvic incidence, lumbar lordosis, sagittal vertical axis, and their role in spinal alignment, deformity correction, and total hip arthroplasty stability.
Split Cord Malformation (Diastematomyelia) β Comprehensive guide to split cord malformation including Pang classification, tethered cord association, cutaneous markers, congenital scoliosis links, and mandatory MRI evaluation before deformity correction.
Spondylolisthesis β Comprehensive exam-ready guide to spondylolisthesis - classification, assessment, and surgical management
Synovial Cysts (Spine) β Comprehensive guide to Lumbar Synovial Cysts, including pathophysiology, MRI appearance, and the surgical management debate (Decompression vs Fusion).
Syringomyelia β Comprehensive guide to syringomyelia and its orthopaedic manifestations, including cape-distribution dissociated sensory loss, Charcot joints, and syrinx-associated scoliosis.
Metastatic Spine Disease β Comprehensive guide to metastatic spine disease including SINS classification, NOMS framework, Bilsky grading, surgical indications, and management for FRACS exam
Multiple Myeloma of the Spine β Comprehensive guide to multiple myeloma spinal involvement including diagnosis, imaging criteria, IMWG guidelines, and orthopaedic management for FRACS exam
Navigation & Robotics in Spine Surgery β Fellowship-level guide to image-guided navigation and robotic assistance for spinal instrumentation: how they improve pedicle-screw accuracy (Gertzbein-Robbins grading) over freehand and fluoroscopy, the comparison between navigation and robotics, the reduction in reoperation and surgeon radiation, and the trade-offs of cost, operative time, registration/line-of-sight error and the learning curve.
Nerve Sheath Tumors of the Spine β Comprehensive guide to schwannomas and neurofibromas of the spine including diagnosis, surgical resection techniques, and management of neurofibromatosis for FRACS examination
Nurick Grading of Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy β The Nurick classification for cervical spondylotic myelopathy β grades 0 to 5 by gait and ambulation, how to apply it at the bedside, its role in surgical decision-making, and its limitations compared with modern outcome scales.
OALL / DISH (Cervical Hyperostosis) β Comprehensive guide to OALL and DISH, focusing on dysphagia management and anterior osteophytectomy.
Occipitocervical / Craniocervical Junction Instability β Fellowship-level guide to craniocervical junction instability: the ligament-dependent anatomy, traumatic atlanto-occipital dissociation (highly lethal) and atraumatic causes (rheumatoid arthritis, Down syndrome, congenital), the CT measurements (CCI, BDI/BAI, Powers ratio) used to diagnose it, the avoid-traction caution, and occipitocervical fusion.
Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament (OPLL) β Comprehensive guide to OPLL causing cervical canal stenosis and myelopathy, covering epidemiology, CT classification (K-line), dural ossification risk, and anterior versus posterior surgical decompression.
Paraspinal Abscess β Comprehensive guide to paraspinal abscess including diagnosis, management, and surgical drainage techniques for FRACS examination preparation
Posterior Vertebral Apophyseal Ring Fracture β Adolescent posterior limbus/apophyseal ring avulsion of the lumbar vertebral body, mimicking disc herniation, with CT diagnosis and surgical excision of the fragment and associated disc.
Primary Bone Tumors of the Spine β Comprehensive guide to primary malignant spine tumors including chordoma, chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma - diagnosis, imaging, staging and surgical management for FRACS exam
Proximal Junctional Kyphosis (PJK) β Comprehensive guide to proximal junctional kyphosis including definition, classification, risk factors, prevention strategies, and management for orthopaedic fellowship exam
Pseudarthrosis of the Spine β Comprehensive guide to spinal pseudarthrosis: risk factors, diagnosis with CT imaging, prevention strategies, and revision surgery principles for FRACS exam preparation
Pseudosubluxation of the Cervical Spine (Paediatric) β Fellowship-level guide to physiological pseudosubluxation of the paediatric cervical spine: the normal anterior displacement of C2 on C3 (and C3 on C4) seen in young children, why it occurs, how the Swischuk posterior cervical line distinguishes it from a true injury, the other paediatric cervical radiographic variants that mimic trauma, and the practical approach to the child with a possible cervical injury.
Pyogenic Discitis & Osteomyelitis β Comprehensive guide to spinal infection, focusing on diagnosis (MRI, Biopsy) and antimicrobial management.
Revision Deformity Surgery β Comprehensive guide to revision surgery for failed adult spinal deformity correction, including etiology, assessment, complex surgical techniques, and complication management for this challenging patient population.
Risser Sign & Skeletal Maturity Staging in Scoliosis β Fellowship-level guide to skeletal maturity assessment in scoliosis: the Risser sign (iliac apophysis ossification) and its US versus European grading, why Risser is a coarse marker that lags the rapid-growth/curve-acceleration phase, the triradiate cartilage and peak height velocity, and the more granular Sanders (digital skeletal age) classification - and how maturity drives bracing and progression-risk decisions.
Rod Fractures in Spinal Instrumentation β Comprehensive guide to rod fractures following spinal fusion surgery, including risk factors, biomechanical principles, diagnosis, and management strategies for this significant complication.
Spinal Epidural Abscess β A surgical emergency covering the diagnosis (Classic Triad) and management of spinal epidural abscess.
Spinal Tuberculosis (Pott's Disease) β Comprehensive guide to spinal tuberculosis including diagnosis, imaging, medical and surgical management, and outcomes for orthopaedic fellowship exam
Tethered Cord Syndrome β Fellowship-level guide to tethered cord syndrome: abnormal caudal fixation of the spinal cord (a low-lying conus with a thickened/fatty filum terminale) producing progressive neuro-orthopaedic, urological and pain symptoms; the cutaneous stigmata and orthopaedic clues (cavovarus foot, leg-length/atrophy, scoliosis), the role of MRI, and surgical untethering - and why it matters to the orthopaedic surgeon.
Thoracic Disc Herniation β Comprehensive evidence-based guide to thoracic disc herniation - rare pathology, myelopathy risk, surgical approach selection, and outcomes for FRACS orthopaedic exam preparation
Three-Column Osteotomies β Comprehensive guide to three-column osteotomies including pedicle subtraction osteotomy and vertebral column resection for complex spinal deformity correction
Torg-Pavlov Ratio for Cervical Stenosis β The canal-to-vertebral-body ratio for detecting cervical spinal stenosis on lateral radiographs β its measurement, thresholds, limitations in athletes, and its role in transient quadriparesis risk stratification.
Vertebral Artery Injury in Cervical Trauma β Fellowship-level guide to blunt vertebral artery injury in cervical spine trauma: the at-risk anatomy (V2 through the transverse foramina), screening criteria, CT angiography, the Biffl/Denver grading, the risk of posterior-circulation stroke, and antithrombotic-led management - with the orthopaedic imperative to screen before reducing high-risk cervical injuries.
Vertebroplasty and Kyphoplasty β Comprehensive guide to vertebral augmentation (vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty) for vertebral compression fractures - indications, technique, outcomes, complications, and the sham-controlled vs open-label trial evidence (Kallmes, Buchbinder, VAPOUR, VERTOS, FREE) for orthopaedic exam preparation
Accessory Soleus Muscle β Exam-focused guide to the accessory soleus: a common congenital variant of the deep posterior compartment that can present as a posteromedial ankle mass, exertional pain, or tarsal tunnel syndrome. Covers insertion classification, MRI diagnosis, when to operate, surgical technique principles, and how to avoid misdiagnosing it as a neoplasm.
Achilles Tendon Rupture β Acute Achilles tendon rupture diagnosis and management including Thompson test, operative vs non-operative treatment, and surgical repair techniques
Adult Acquired Flatfoot Deformity β Comprehensive guide to adult acquired flatfoot deformity (AAFD) with focus on posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (PTTD), Johnson and Strom classification, surgical reconstruction algorithms, and evidence-based management strategies for Orthopaedic examination preparation.
Ankle Impingement Syndromes β Comprehensive guide to anterior and posterior ankle impingement including etiology, diagnosis, and arthroscopic management for the FRACS exam
Anterior Ankle Impingement β Comprehensive guide to anterior ankle impingement diagnosis and management for FRCS exam preparation
Anterior Tibial Tendon Rupture β Comprehensive guide to anterior tibial tendon rupture including diagnosis, management, and surgical reconstruction techniques for the FRACS exam
Anterior Tibialis Tendon Rupture β Fellowship-level guide to tibialis anterior tendon rupture: the often-missed spontaneous drop-foot of the older patient, why the long extensors mask it, and conservative versus surgical management.
Baxter Neuropathy β Comprehensive guide to entrapment of the inferior calcaneal nerve (first branch of the lateral plantar nerve), including clinical differentiation from plantar fasciitis, electrodiagnosis, imaging, and surgical decompression.
Baxter's Nerve Entrapment β Compression of the first branch of the lateral plantar nerve causing chronic heel pain, often mimicking plantar fasciitis
Berndt-Harty Classification of Osteochondral Talar Lesions β The Berndt-Harty staging system for osteochondral lesions of the talar dome β four stages from compression to displaced fragment, MRI correlation via the Hepple modification, and the management algorithm from conservative treatment to arthroscopic fixation or excision with microfracture.
Brachymetatarsia / Congenital Short Metatarsal β Fellowship-level guide to brachymetatarsia: a congenitally short metatarsal (most often the fourth, from premature physeal closure) that disrupts the metatarsal parabola and leaves the corresponding toe short and dorsally riding; the associations, the clinical and radiographic features, and the surgical lengthening options - one-stage interpositional bone graft versus gradual distraction osteogenesis (callotasis) - with their trade-offs.
Bunionette Deformity (Tailor's Bunion) β Comprehensive guide to bunionette deformity: lateral fifth metatarsal prominence, Coughlin classification (Types I-III), surgical decision-making for lateral condylectomy, chevron, and proximal osteotomies.
Calcaneal Fractures β Comprehensive guide to calcaneal fractures: Sanders CT classification, ORIF via extensile lateral approach, management of wound complications
Calcaneocuboid Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to calcaneocuboid arthritis covering pathophysiology, clinical assessment, conservative and surgical management for Orthopaedic exam preparation
Cavovarus Foot Deformity β Comprehensive guide to cavovarus foot deformity including CMT etiology, Coleman block test, staged reconstruction, and outcomes
Charcot Neuroarthropathy β Comprehensive guide to Charcot foot: Eichenholtz staging, offloading strategies, and surgical reconstruction techniques
Charcot Neuroarthropathy β Comprehensive guide to Charcot neuroarthropathy of the foot and ankle, including Eichenholtz staging, rocker-bottom deformity, total contact casting, and reconstruction versus amputation decision-making.
Claw Toes β Comprehensive guide to claw toe deformity including biomechanics, neurological causes, flexible vs rigid classification, and surgical management strategies.
Common, Superficial & Deep Peroneal (Fibular) Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level anatomy of the common peroneal (fibular) nerve and its superficial and deep branches: sciatic origin, the vulnerable course around the fibular neck, foot drop, and the compartments supplied.
Congenital Cleft Foot & Overlapping/Underlapping Fifth Toe β Fellowship-level guide to two congenital forefoot conditions: cleft foot (split-foot malformation / ectrodactyly, 'lobster-claw') - a central-ray deficiency that may be isolated or part of a syndrome (e.g. EEC) needing genetic counselling and function-and-cosmesis-tailored surgery - and the overlapping (congenital overriding) and underlapping ('curly') fifth toe, most of which correct or settle with non-operative care, with surgery reserved for persistent symptomatic deformity.
Crossover Toe Deformity β Comprehensive guide to crossover toe deformity - second toe plantar plate tear, dorsal subluxation mechanism, flexible vs rigid grading, and surgical flexor-extensor balancing techniques
Dameron-Torg Classification of 5th Metatarsal Fractures β The Dameron and Torg classification system for proximal fifth metatarsal fractures β distinguishing tuberosity avulsion, Jones, and proximal diaphyseal stress fractures, with management implications based on zone and sclerosis pattern.
Deltoid Ligament Injuries β Comprehensive review of deltoid ligament injuries including acute sprains, chronic insufficiency, grading systems, associated fractures, and evidence-based management strategies
Diabetic Foot Infections β Spectrum of soft tissue and bone infections in diabetic foot, from superficial cellulitis to limb-threatening deep space infections and osteomyelitis
Diabetic Foot Management β Comprehensive guide to diabetic foot ulcer classification (Wagner, Texas), infection management, amputation indications, and multidisciplinary care
Diabetic Foot Ulcers β Comprehensive guide to diabetic foot ulcer pathophysiology, Wagner and University of Texas classifications, assessment, offloading, wound care, surgical management, and prevention strategies
Diabetic Neuropathy β Comprehensive guide to diabetic peripheral neuropathy affecting the foot and ankle, including pathophysiology, monofilament screening, Charcot arthropathy, ulcer prevention, and multidisciplinary management for orthopaedic fellowship exams
Extensor Tendon Injuries - Foot and Ankle β Comprehensive guide to extensor tendon injuries of the foot - anatomy, mechanism, acute and chronic management, surgical repair techniques, and rehabilitation for orthopaedic exam
First MTP Joint Arthrodesis β Comprehensive guide to first MTP arthrodesis for end-stage hallux rigidus and severe hallux valgus, including fusion position, technique, and complications
Flexor Hallucis Longus (FHL) Tendinitis β Comprehensive guide to FHL tendinitis including anatomy, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management strategies for the FRACS exam
Foot & Ankle Amputation Levels β Fellowship-level guide to partial foot and ankle amputation levels - toe, ray, transmetatarsal, Lisfranc, Chopart, Syme and Pirogoff/Boyd - their biomechanics, muscle-balance pitfalls, and outcomes versus transtibial amputation.
Foot & Ankle Orthotics, Bracing and AFOs β Fellowship-level guide to foot and ankle orthoses: foot orthoses/insoles for support and offloading, the spectrum of ankle-foot orthoses (AFOs) - posterior leaf spring, solid/rigid, hinged, and ground-reaction (floor-reaction) designs - and specialised devices such as the Arizona/gauntlet AFO and the CROW boot for Charcot; the indications matched to the deficit (flexible foot drop, fixed deformity, quadriceps weakness, hindfoot/ankle arthritis, Charcot), and the biomechanical principles.
Foot Puncture Wounds β Fellowship-level guide to plantar foot puncture wounds: the small but important proportion that develop deep infection and osteomyelitis, the classic Pseudomonas aeruginosa association with punctures through rubber-soled footwear, the role of imaging for retained foreign bodies, tetanus prophylaxis, and the principles of wound care, debridement and culture-directed antibiotics.
Freiberg Infraction β Comprehensive guide to Freiberg infraction (osteonecrosis of the second metatarsal head), including Smillie staging, clinical assessment, conservative management, and surgical options including dorsal closing-wedge osteotomy.
Gastrocnemius (Equinus) Contracture & the SilfverskiΓΆld Test β Fellowship-level guide to isolated gastrocnemius contracture: the SilfverskiΓΆld test, why a tight gastrocnemius overloads the forefoot, and gastrocnemius recession versus Achilles lengthening.
Haglund Syndrome and Insertional Achilles Tendinopathy β Comprehensive guide to posterosuperior calcaneal prominence with retrocalcaneal bursitis and insertional Achilles tendinopathy, covering pump bump, eccentric loading, calcaneal ostectomy, and tendon reattachment.
Haglund's Deformity β Comprehensive guide to Haglund's deformity (pump bump) - anatomy, pathophysiology, parallel pitch lines, conservative management, central tendon-splitting approach, and lateral surgical techniques for orthopaedic exam
Hallux Rigidus β Comprehensive Orthopaedic exam guide to hallux rigidus: classification, grading systems, treatment algorithms comparing cheilectomy vs arthrodesis vs arthroplasty, and surgical decision-making.
Hallux Valgus β Bunion deformity with lateral deviation of hallux and medial prominence of first metatarsal head. Comprehensive coverage of assessment, osteotomy selection (chevron, scarf, Lapidus), surgical technique, and complications.
Hallux Varus β Comprehensive guide to hallux varus - definition, etiology, flexible vs rigid deformity, conservative and surgical management including EHL transfer and arthrodesis for orthopaedic exam
Hammer Toes β Comprehensive guide to hammer toe deformity including classification, flexible vs rigid, surgical correction techniques, and outcomes.
Hardcastle/Myerson Classification of Lisfranc Injuries β The Hardcastle classification as modified by Myerson for tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc) joint injuries β the three patterns, their subtypes, radiographic features, and how the classification directs anatomic reduction with fixation versus primary arthrodesis.
Interphalangeal Joint Arthritis (Foot) β Comprehensive guide to hallux IPJ and lesser toe IPJ arthritis - post-traumatic and degenerative causes, conservative vs arthrodesis surgical approach for exam
Keller Resection Arthroplasty β Fellowship-level guide to the Keller resection arthroplasty of the first metatarsophalangeal joint: excision of the base of the proximal phalanx of the hallux to decompress an arthritic or deformed first MTP joint; its modern niche in the low-demand elderly patient with hallux valgus or hallux rigidus, the trade-off of losing hallux push-off (transfer metatarsalgia, cock-up and flail-toe deformities), and first-MTP arthrodesis as the salvage for a failed Keller.
Lateral Ankle Instability β Comprehensive guide to lateral ankle instability including ATFL/CFL anatomy, examination techniques, Brostrom-Gould repair, and anatomic reconstruction options for Orthopaedic examination.
Lederhose Disease (Plantar Fibromatosis) β Comprehensive guide to Lederhose disease (plantar fibromatosis): pathophysiology, imaging, classification, conservative and surgical management, recurrence, and exam pearls for FRACS and FRCS preparation
Lesser MTP Joint Arthritis β Comprehensive review of lesser metatarsophalangeal joint arthritis including pathoanatomy, clinical assessment, conservative and surgical management strategies
Lesser Toe Deformities β Comprehensive guide to hammer toe, claw toe, and mallet toe: classification, pathomechanics, non-operative management, and surgical correction techniques for Orthopaedic exam
Lisfranc Injuries β Comprehensive guide to Lisfranc (tarsometatarsal) injuries including Myerson classification, subtle diagnosis (fleck sign), and treatment from ORIF to primary arthrodesis
Meary Angle (Talo-First Metatarsal Angle) β The Meary angle β the lateral talus-first metatarsal axis measurement for sagittal-plane foot alignment. Normal is approximately zero degrees; apex-plantar in pes planus, apex-dorsal in pes cavus. How to measure, interpret, and act on it in FRACS/FRCS exams.
Medial Ankle Instability β Deltoid ligament insufficiency causing medial ankle instability, including anatomy, diagnosis, conservative and surgical management of this uncommon but significant ankle pathology
Sesamoid Disorders of the Foot β Comprehensive guide to hallucal sesamoid pathology: sesamoiditis, fractures, bipartite variants, AVN, arthritis. Classification, imaging differentiation, and surgical decision-making including sesamoidectomy.
Sinus Tarsi Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to sinus tarsi syndrome - anatomy, post-traumatic etiology, clinical diagnosis, imaging, conservative management, and surgical debridement for FRACS exam preparation.
Spring Ligament Insufficiency β Comprehensive guide to plantar calcaneonavicular (spring) ligament pathology, assessment, and surgical reconstruction in adult flatfoot deformity
Subtalar Arthritis β Degenerative arthritis of the subtalar joint causing hindfoot pain, loss of inversion/eversion, and altered gait mechanics
Subtalar Arthrodesis β Comprehensive guide to subtalar joint fusion: indications, surgical technique, biomechanics, and outcomes for post-traumatic arthritis and deformity correction
Subungual Exostosis & Subungual Tumours β Fellowship-level guide to the subungual exostosis (Dupuytren's exostosis) - a benign fibrocartilage-capped bony outgrowth from the dorsal distal phalanx, usually of the great toe in adolescents/young adults that elevates and deforms the nail - and the wider differential of subungual tumours (glomus tumour, osteochondroma, and the must-not-miss subungual melanoma); the radiographic diagnosis, marginal excision and the importance of excluding malignancy.
Syndesmotic Instability β Comprehensive guide to syndesmotic instability - high ankle sprains, anatomy of AITFL/PITFL/IOL, West Point and Lauge-Hansen classification, clinical tests, radiographic assessment, and fixation options for orthopaedic exam
Talonavicular Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to talonavicular arthritis covering pathophysiology, clinical assessment, conservative and surgical management, and outcomes for Orthopaedic exam preparation
Talus Fractures β Comprehensive guide to talus fractures including Hawkins classification, AVN risk stratification, urgent reduction techniques, and surgical approaches for this challenging injury with critical blood supply implications
Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to tarsal tunnel syndrome including anatomy, diagnosis, provocative tests, electrodiagnostic studies, and surgical decompression techniques for FRACS exam preparation.
Keratotic Disorders of the Plantar Skin (Corns, Calluses, IPK) β Fellowship-level guide to plantar hyperkeratoses: callus (tyloma), hard and soft corns (heloma durum/molle) and the intractable plantar keratosis (IPK) under a metatarsal head - their pressure-related pathogenesis, the key differentiation from a plantar wart (verruca), conservative offloading/debridement, the diabetic pre-ulcer significance, and surgery (condylectomy/metatarsal osteotomy) with the risk of transfer lesions.
Metatarsalgia β Comprehensive guide to forefoot pain including primary and secondary causes, biomechanics, examination with drawer test, conservative orthotics management, Weil osteotomy surgical technique, and transfer metatarsalgia prevention for FRCS orthopaedic exam preparation
Midfoot Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to midfoot arthritis diagnosis and management for FRCS exam preparation
Morton's Neuroma β Comprehensive guide to Morton's neuroma including pathophysiology, Mulder's click, conservative management, corticosteroid injection, and surgical neurectomy.
Navicular Stress Fracture β Comprehensive guide to tarsal navicular stress fractures in athletes, including watershed-zone biology, diagnosis with MRI/CT, classification, and evidence-based management with non-weight-bearing immobilisation or internal fixation.
Onychocryptosis (Ingrown Toenail) and Toenail Disorders β Fellowship-level guide to onychocryptosis (ingrown toenail): pathogenesis and risk factors, the Heifetz/Mozena staging, conservative measures, and the evidence that partial nail avulsion with chemical (phenol) matricectomy gives the lowest recurrence - with a note on related toenail disorders (onychomycosis, onychogryphosis, subungual exostosis).
Os Trigonum Syndrome β Comprehensive guide to os trigonum syndrome for FRCS exam preparation
Osteochondral Lesion of the Talus β Complete exam guide to osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) - aetiology, location, Berndt-Harty and Hepple classification, MRI/CT staging, microfracture, OAT and ACI, the lesion-size decision, and complications for orthopaedic exams
Painful Accessory Ossicles of the Foot (Os Peroneum & Os Vesalianum) β Fellowship-level guide to the painful accessory ossicles of the foot - chiefly the painful os peroneum syndrome (a spectrum of lateral-foot pain from an os peroneum within the peroneus longus tendon, where a fractured or diastatic ossicle may signal a peroneus longus tear) and the os vesalianum at the fifth metatarsal base - with how to distinguish them from an avulsion fracture, the role of comparison views/MRI, and a non-operative-first management approach (os trigonum and accessory navicular have their own pages).
Peroneal Tendon Disorders β Comprehensive guide to peroneal tendon pathology including tears, subluxation, and SPR repair - covering anatomy, classification, surgical techniques, and rehabilitation
Peroneal Tendon Tears β Comprehensive guide to peroneal tendon tears - anatomy, Sobel classification, tubular vs split tears, debridement vs reconstruction techniques, and surgical decision-making for orthopaedic exam
Plantar Fasciitis Management β Comprehensive guide to plantar fasciitis - anatomy, pathophysiology, diagnosis, conservative management, injection therapies, surgical techniques, and evidence-based treatment for orthopaedic exam
Plantar Fibromatosis (Ledderhose Disease) β Comprehensive guide to plantar fibromatosis (Ledderhose disease), including pathophysiology, Dupuytren association, high recurrence after excision, and treatment algorithms.
Plantar Plate Insufficiency & Lesser MTP Instability β Fellowship-level guide to plantar plate degeneration and tear at the lesser metatarsophalangeal joints: the cause of second-toe crossover deformity, the drawer test, distinguishing it from Morton's neuroma, and direct repair.
Posterior Ankle Impingement β Comprehensive guide to posterior ankle impingement and os trigonum syndrome for FRCS exam preparation
Retrocalcaneal Bursitis β Inflammation of the retrocalcaneal bursa between the Achilles tendon and calcaneus, commonly seen in athletes and associated with Haglund's deformity
Tarsometatarsal (TMT) Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to TMT joint arthritis: clinical presentation, conservative and surgical management strategies
The Rheumatoid Foot and Ankle β Comprehensive guide to the spectrum of forefoot, midfoot, hindfoot and ankle involvement in rheumatoid arthritis, with surgical reconstruction principles including Fowler excision arthroplasty, first MTP arthrodesis and triple arthrodesis.
Tibial Nerve Anatomy β Fellowship-level anatomy of the tibial nerve: sciatic origin, popliteal fossa and posterior-leg course, the tarsal tunnel, medial and lateral plantar nerves, and injury patterns including the insensate sole.
Triple Arthrodesis β Comprehensive guide to triple arthrodesis for hindfoot deformity, including indications, surgical technique, complications, and evidence-based outcomes
Adamantinoma β Comprehensive guide to adamantinoma - rare low-grade malignant bone tumour with tibial predilection, imaging features, surgical management, and prognosis for orthopaedic exam
Alveolar Soft Part Sarcoma β Fellowship-level guide to alveolar soft part sarcoma (ASPS) - a rare soft-tissue sarcoma of young adults, defined by the ASPSCR1-TFE3 gene fusion (nuclear TFE3), that grows slowly but has a striking propensity for early haematogenous metastasis (lung, bone, brain) - covering its painless deep limb mass, the alveolar/organoid histology with PAS-positive crystals, the staging/biopsy work-up, and management with wide surgical resection (chemo-resistant) plus anti-angiogenic/immunotherapy and long-term surveillance for late metastases.
Aneurysmal Bone Cyst β Comprehensive guide to aneurysmal bone cyst (ABC) - benign expansile bone lesion with fluid-fluid levels, imaging features, treatment options including curettage and denosumab for orthopaedic exam
Angiosarcoma β Rare aggressive vascular malignancy with poor prognosis, occurring in soft tissue and associated with radiation, lymphedema, and chronic inflammation
Benign Fibrous Histiocytoma of Bone β Fellowship-level guide to benign fibrous histiocytoma of bone (BFHB) - a rare benign fibrous bone tumour, histologically identical to non-ossifying fibroma (storiform fibroblasts with osteoclast-type giant cells and foamy macrophages) but distinguished by its presentation in atypical sites and older/symptomatic patients - covering the diagnosis, the contested relationship with non-ossifying fibroma, the meaningful local recurrence rate after curettage, and the rare possibility of malignant transformation.
Benign Notochordal Cell Tumour β Fellowship-level guide to the benign notochordal cell tumour (BNCT) - a benign intraosseous lesion arising from notochordal remnants in the axial skeleton (clivus, vertebrae, sacrum) - covering its typically incidental, sclerotic, non-destructive imaging appearance, the crucial distinction from chordoma (the malignant notochordal tumour it can mimic and may be a precursor to), and the management principle of observation for the benign lesion versus oncological resection for chordoma.
Biopsy Principles and Techniques in Orthopaedic Oncology β Comprehensive guide to biopsy principles including Mankin errors, needle vs open biopsy, approach planning, specimen handling, and collaboration with tumor centers for orthopaedic exam preparation
Bone Island (Enostosis) β Comprehensive guide to bone islands: imaging characteristics, differential diagnosis, clinical significance, and distinguishing from malignant lesions
Brown Tumour of Hyperparathyroidism β Comprehensive guide to brown tumour (osteitis fibrosa cystica) of hyperparathyroidism - pathophysiology, lytic imaging, the critical giant cell tumour mimic, biochemistry and parathyroidectomy-first management for orthopaedic fellowship exams
Chondroblastoma β Rare benign cartilage tumor of epiphysis in skeletally immature patients
Chondrosarcoma β Malignant cartilage-forming tumor - second most common primary bone malignancy with varied biological behavior
Chordoma β Comprehensive guide to chordoma diagnosis, management, and surgical treatment for FRCS exam preparation
Clear Cell Sarcoma β Rare aggressive soft tissue sarcoma of tendons and aponeuroses with EWSR1-ATF1 fusion and melanocytic differentiation - the melanoma of soft parts in young adults
Dermatofibrosarcoma Protuberans (DFSP) β Fellowship-level guide to dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: a low-grade cutaneous soft-tissue sarcoma with a storiform CD34-positive histology and the COL1A1-PDGFB fusion from t(17;22), its very high local recurrence from infiltrative margins, the fibrosarcomatous variant's metastatic potential, and treatment by wide excision/Mohs micrographic surgery with imatinib for unresectable or recurrent disease.
Desmoplastic Fibroma of Bone β Comprehensive guide to desmoplastic fibroma of bone, a rare benign but locally aggressive intraosseous fibromatosis affecting the mandible and long bones, with high recurrence risk and indications for wide excision.
Elastofibroma Dorsi β Benign fibroelastic pseudotumour beneath the scapular tip with pathognomonic imaging - the soft-tissue mass examiners love to test as a sarcoma mimic
Enchondroma β Benign intramedullary cartilage tumor, most common tumor of hand bones
Enneking Staging of Musculoskeletal Tumours β The Enneking system for staging benign and malignant musculoskeletal tumours β surgical grades, compartments, stages, and how the stage dictates the surgical margin.
Epithelioid Haemangioma & Haemangioendothelioma of Bone β Fellowship-level guide to the epithelioid vascular tumours of bone - the benign/locally aggressive epithelioid haemangioma and the intermediate-grade, low-to-moderate malignancy epithelioid haemangioendothelioma (EHE) - covering their lytic, often multifocal bone presentation, the vascular endothelial immunophenotype (CD31/ERG, with the WWTR1-CAMTA1 fusion characterising EHE), the differential from the highly malignant angiosarcoma, and management that ranges from curettage to wide resection and systemic therapy by grade and extent.
Epithelioid Sarcoma β Rare INI1/SMARCB1-deficient soft tissue sarcoma of young adults - the great mimic that favours the distal upper limb, recurs locally, and spreads to nodes, skin and lung
Erdheim-Chester Disease β Fellowship-level guide to Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD) - a rare non-Langerhans cell histiocytosis driven by MAPK-pathway (notably BRAF V600E) mutations - covering its hallmark bilateral symmetric osteosclerosis of the long-bone metadiaphyses (CD68-positive, CD1a-negative foamy histiocytes), the wide multisystem involvement (cardiovascular, retroperitoneal/'hairy kidney', CNS, orbit), the diagnostic role of bone scan/PET and biopsy with BRAF testing, and the transformation of management by targeted BRAF/MEK inhibition.
Expandable Prostheses in Pediatric Oncology β Comprehensive guide to expandable endoprostheses for limb salvage in skeletally immature patients with bone tumours - mechanisms, indications, complications, and conversion to adult prosthesis
Extraskeletal Myxoid Chondrosarcoma β Fellowship-level guide to extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma (EMC) - a rare soft-tissue sarcoma of (despite its name) uncertain/non-cartilaginous differentiation, defined by NR4A3 gene rearrangement (most often EWSR1-NR4A3) - covering its deep proximal-limb mass presentation, the myxoid, multilobular histology with cords of eosinophilic cells, the indolent but relapsing long-term course with late metastases, and management by wide resection with prolonged surveillance (it is relatively chemo/radio-resistant).
Extraskeletal Osteosarcoma β Fellowship-level guide to extraskeletal osteosarcoma - a rare, high-grade soft-tissue sarcoma that produces osteoid/bone but arises in soft tissue with no attachment to bone or periosteum, typically in older adults - covering its deep soft-tissue (often thigh) mass, the distinction from myositis ossificans and from the surface osteosarcomas, the poor prognosis with high metastatic risk, and management by wide resection with chemotherapy of uncertain benefit.
Fibrosarcoma of Bone β Primary malignant spindle cell tumor of bone producing collagen without osteoid or chondroid matrix, representing less than 5% of primary bone sarcomas
Fibrous Dysplasia β Benign fibro-osseous lesion caused by GNAS mutation, monostotic vs polyostotic forms, McCune-Albright and Mazabraud syndromes
Forequarter Amputation β Comprehensive guide to forequarter amputation - indications (tumour, trauma, infection), anterior vs posterior approach, vascular control, brachial plexus management, flap options, prosthetic rehabilitation, psychological support for orthopaedic exam
Giant Cell Reparative Granuloma β Fellowship-level guide to giant cell reparative granuloma (GCRG) - a benign, reactive giant-cell-rich lesion most often of the small bones of the hands and feet (and the jaws) - covering its lytic, expansile presentation, the histology of a fibrous stroma with unevenly distributed giant cells and haemorrhage/reactive bone (now regarded within the 'solid aneurysmal bone cyst'/giant-cell-lesion-of-small-bones spectrum), the crucial distinction from giant cell tumour of bone (which is rare in the hand and locally aggressive), and management by curettage with a recurrence rate.
Giant Cell Tumor of Bone β Benign but locally aggressive bone tumor characterized by multinucleated giant cells, typically occurring in the epiphysis of skeletally mature patients
Giant Cell Tumor of Tendon Sheath (GCTTS) β Comprehensive guide to giant cell tumor of tendon sheath (GCTTS), a benign proliferative lesion of the tendon sheath - the extra-articular manifestation of tenosynovial giant cell tumor (TGCT).
Granular Cell Tumour β Fellowship-level guide to the granular cell tumour - an uncommon, usually benign soft-tissue tumour of Schwann-cell (neural) origin (S100-positive), presenting as a small firm dermal/subcutaneous nodule (classically tongue, but also skin and soft tissue of the limbs) - covering the characteristic granular eosinophilic cytology, the rare malignant variant (size over ~4-5 cm, rapid growth, the dangerous one), the differential, and management by complete excision with clear margins.
Hemangioma (Soft Tissue) β Comprehensive coverage of soft tissue hemangiomas including classification, clinical presentation, imaging characteristics, management strategies, and complications for orthopaedic surgery examination preparation
Hemangioma of Bone β Benign vascular tumor of bone, most commonly affecting vertebral bodies and skull, typically asymptomatic and incidental, with characteristic corduroy or polka-dot radiographic appearance
Hemipelvectomy and Hindquarter Amputation β Comprehensive surgical technique guide to hemipelvectomy - internal (limb-sparing) and external (hindquarter amputation) for pelvic sarcoma resection, Enneking-Dunham classification, vascular control, reconstruction options, flap coverage for orthopaedic fellowship exam preparation
High-Grade Surface Osteosarcoma β Fellowship-level guide to high-grade surface osteosarcoma - the rarest of the three surface (juxtacortical) osteosarcomas (with parosteal and periosteal), a high-grade malignancy arising on the bone surface that behaves like conventional intramedullary osteosarcoma - covering how it differs from the low-grade parosteal and intermediate-grade periosteal variants, the central role of histological grade in determining treatment, and management with neoadjuvant/adjuvant chemotherapy plus wide resection.
Intramuscular Myxoma β Benign myxoid soft-tissue tumour of skeletal muscle driven by GNAS mutation; a classic sarcoma mimic and the soft-tissue component of Mazabraud syndrome
Intraosseous Ganglion β Fellowship-level guide to the intraosseous ganglion - a benign, mucin-filled subchondral bone cyst (a 'bone ganglion') most often found in the carpus (lunate/scaphoid), the medial malleolus, the femoral head/acetabulum and around the knee - covering its well-defined lytic subchondral appearance with a sclerotic rim, the distinction from a degenerative subchondral (geode) cyst and other lytic lesions, and management by observation when asymptomatic and curettage with bone grafting when symptomatic.
Intraosseous Lipoma β Rare benign intramedullary fat-containing tumor with classic central calcification
Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis β Rare disorder of clonal proliferation of Langerhans cells affecting bone and systemic organs, with spectrum from solitary eosinophilic granuloma to multisystem disease, requiring multidisciplinary management
Leiomyosarcoma of Soft Tissue β Malignant smooth-muscle sarcoma of soft tissue - aggressive spindle-cell tumour of older adults driven by grade and size, treated with wide excision and chemotherapy reserved for advanced disease
Leukaemic Involvement of Bone β Fellowship-level guide to the skeletal manifestations of leukaemia: how childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia frequently presents with musculoskeletal pain (mimicking JIA, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis or CRMO) before haematological signs, the red flags that should prompt a blood film and marrow examination, the radiographic features (leukaemic lines, osteopenia, permeative lesions), and the orthopaedic role of recognition and referral.
Limb Salvage Surgery Principles β Comprehensive guide to limb salvage surgery principles for musculoskeletal tumours - Enneking staging, surgical margins, reconstruction options, endoprostheses, allografts, growing prostheses, rotationplasty, and functional outcomes for orthopaedic fellowship exam preparation
Lipoma β Benign adipocytic tumor - most common soft tissue tumor with excellent prognosis and rare malignant transformation
Lipoma Arborescens β Fellowship-level guide to lipoma arborescens - a rare benign intra-articular lesion of frond-like (tree-like) villous proliferation of mature fat replacing the synovium, most often in the suprapatellar pouch of the knee - covering its presentation as chronic painless joint swelling with effusion, the pathognomonic MRI appearance (fatty frond-like synovial projections, fat signal on all sequences, suppressing with fat saturation), its association with chronic synovial irritation/arthritis, and management by synovectomy with a good outcome.
Liposarcoma β Malignant adipocytic tumor - most common soft tissue sarcoma in adults with variable prognosis based on histological subtype
Marjolin's Ulcer β Comprehensive guide to Marjolin's ulcer - aggressive squamous cell carcinoma arising in chronic wounds, scars, sinuses and burns, including latency, biopsy, wide excision, amputation, nodal staging, and prognosis.
Massive Osteolysis (Gorham-Stout / Vanishing Bone Disease) β Fellowship-level guide to Gorham-Stout disease: a rare disorder of progressive spontaneous massive osteolysis from intraosseous lymphatic/vascular proliferation ('vanishing bone'), its axial predilection, the feared chylothorax complication, the diagnosis of exclusion (progressive osteolysis + characteristic histology) and the treatment options (bisphosphonates, sirolimus, radiotherapy, surgery).
Rotationplasty β Comprehensive guide to rotationplasty (Van Nes/Borggreve procedure) - limb-salvage technique converting ankle to knee joint for distal femur and proximal tibia tumours in paediatric patients
Schwannoma (Neurilemmoma) β Benign peripheral nerve sheath tumor arising from Schwann cells - eccentric growth allows enucleation without nerve sacrifice
Simple Bone Cyst (Unicameral Bone Cyst) β Benign fluid-filled bone cavity most common in proximal humerus and femur of children, characterized by clear fluid content and risk of pathological fracture
Soft Tissue Masses and Sarcoma Referral Pathway β Advanced orthopaedic guide to soft tissue masses and sarcoma referral: red flags, clinical assessment, MRI interpretation, staging, biopsy principles, unplanned excision, MDT management and counselling.
Solitary Plasmacytoma of Bone β Fellowship-level guide to solitary plasmacytoma of bone: a single localized plasma-cell tumour with no systemic myeloma, its diagnostic criteria, the mandatory workup to exclude occult multiple myeloma, radiotherapy as the treatment of choice, the role of surgery for structural lesions, and the high rate of progression to multiple myeloma.
Subungual Melanoma β Comprehensive guide to subungual (acral lentiginous) melanoma of the nail unit, including Hutchinson sign, ABCDEF nail rules, nail-bed biopsy techniques, wide excision and amputation, and prognosis.
Synovial Chondromatosis β Comprehensive exam guide to synovial (osteo)chondromatosis - a benign cartilaginous metaplasia of the synovium producing multiple loose bodies, its Milgram staging, imaging, surgical management, and the small but important risk of malignant transformation to secondary synovial chondrosarcoma.
Synovial Cyst (Ganglion and Joint-Based Cysts) β Comprehensive guide to synovial cysts including ganglion cysts, popliteal (Baker's) cysts, and spinal synovial cysts - benign fluid-filled lesions arising from joint capsule or tendon sheath.
Synovial Sarcoma β Malignant soft tissue sarcoma with t(X;18) translocation - third most common soft tissue sarcoma affecting young adults near joints
Tenosynovial Giant Cell Tumour (PVNS / GCT-TS) β Comprehensive guide to tenosynovial giant cell tumour including localised and diffuse types, CSF1-driven pathogenesis, MRI haemosiderin blooming artefact, surgical synovectomy, and pexidartinib therapy.
Bizarre Parosteal Osteochondromatous Proliferation (Nora Lesion) β Comprehensive guide to Nora lesion (BPOP), a rare surface-based bone tumour of the hands and feet, including histopathology, differentiation from osteochondroma and parosteal osteosarcoma, and management by marginal excision.
Metastatic Bone Disease β Comprehensive guide to metastatic bone disease including common primaries, fracture risk assessment with Mirels score, surgical stabilization options, and palliative management.
Mirels Score for Impending Pathological Fracture β The Mirels scoring system for predicting pathological fracture risk in long-bone metastases β the four parameters, score thresholds, and how to act on them.
Multiple Myeloma β Plasma cell neoplasm with skeletal manifestations - punched-out lytic lesions without blastic response
Myxofibrosarcoma β Fellowship-level guide to myxofibrosarcoma: one of the commonest soft-tissue sarcomas of the elderly, its characteristic infiltrative growth along fascial planes (the MRI 'tail sign'), the resulting very high local recurrence, the spectrum from low to high grade, and management by wide excision with generous margins (guided by pre-operative MRI) plus radiotherapy.
Neurofibroma β Benign peripheral nerve sheath tumor arising from Schwann cells, fibroblasts, and perineural cells - associated with neurofibromatosis type 1
Nodular Fasciitis β Fellowship-level guide to nodular fasciitis: a benign, self-limiting reactive myofibroblastic proliferation - the classic 'pseudosarcoma' - that grows rapidly and is frequently mistaken for a sarcoma, its USP6 (MYH9-USP6) molecular signature, the tissue-culture histology, and the importance of accurate diagnosis to allow conservative management and avoid overtreatment.
Non-Ossifying Fibroma (Fibrous Cortical Defect) β Comprehensive guide to non-ossifying fibroma and fibrous cortical defect, including diagnosis, fracture-risk assessment, differential diagnosis, and management.
Osteoblastoma β Benign bone-forming tumor representing 1% of primary bone tumors, characterized by osteoid and bone production with active osteoblasts
Osteofibrous Dysplasia β Rare benign fibro-osseous lesion of long bones, primarily affecting the anterior tibia in children, with characteristic cortical involvement and well-defined radiographic features
Osteoid Osteoma β Comprehensive guide to osteoid osteoma - diagnosis, imaging characteristics, night pain pattern, surgical excision, and radiofrequency ablation for orthopaedic exam
Osteoma & Bone Island (Enostosis / Ivory Exostosis) β Fellowship-level guide to the benign dense bony lesions - the osteoma (an 'ivory'/compact bony outgrowth on the bone surface, classically the skull/paranasal sinuses/jaw, with the Gardner-syndrome association) and the enostosis or bone island (a focus of compact bone within the medulla) - covering their characteristically dense, asymptomatic, incidental appearance, the radiographic features that confirm benignity (rose-thorn radiating spicules, very high CT attenuation, no bone-scan uptake, stability over time), the differential from osteoblastic metastasis and low-grade osteosarcoma, and management by reassurance.
Osteopoikilosis β Comprehensive coverage of osteopoikilosis (spotted bone disease) including LEMD3 genetics, Buschke-Ollendorff syndrome, the spotted-bone radiographic pattern, distinguishing it from sclerotic metastases, and management for orthopaedic surgery examination preparation
Osteosarcoma β Comprehensive guide to osteosarcoma including diagnosis, staging, neoadjuvant chemotherapy, limb salvage surgery, and prognostic factors for Orthopaedic examination.
Paget's Sarcoma (Sarcomatous Transformation of Paget Disease) β Comprehensive guide to malignant transformation of Paget disease of bone - epidemiology, presentation, imaging, biopsy, multimodal management and prognosis of this aggressive secondary bone sarcoma.
Pathologic Fracture Management β Comprehensive guide to diagnosis, surgical decision-making, and reconstruction techniques for pathologic fractures through benign and malignant bone lesions
Periosteal Chondrosarcoma β Fellowship-level guide to periosteal (juxtacortical) chondrosarcoma - a rare, usually low-grade malignant cartilage tumour arising on the bone surface, typically at the metaphysis of a long bone - covering its distinction from the benign periosteal chondroma and from surface osteosarcoma, the generally indolent behaviour, the IDH1 mutation, and management by marginal/wide excision with a good prognosis.
Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis (PVNS) β Comprehensive guide to pigmented villonodular synovitis (PVNS), a benign proliferative synovial disorder causing joint destruction through local invasion.
Primary Bone Lymphoma β Non-Hodgkin lymphoma arising in bone with no nodal or visceral disease - a permeative round cell tumour treated by chemotherapy, not wide resection
Radiotherapy in Musculoskeletal Tumours β Fellowship-level guide to radiotherapy in orthopaedic oncology: radiosensitive (Ewing sarcoma, lymphoma, myeloma, metastases) versus radioresistant (osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma) tumours, the role of neoadjuvant versus adjuvant radiotherapy in limb-sparing soft-tissue sarcoma surgery, palliative radiotherapy for bone metastases, the modalities (EBRT/IMRT, brachytherapy, proton beam), and complications including wound problems, fibrosis and radiation-induced sarcoma.
Rhabdomyosarcoma β Most common soft tissue sarcoma of childhood - skeletal-muscle differentiation, embryonal vs alveolar histology, PAX-FOXO1 fusion status drives risk, treated by multimodal chemotherapy, surgery and radiotherapy
Soft-Tissue & Bone Tumours of the Foot & Ankle (Overview) β Fellowship-level overview of tumours of the foot and ankle - benign lesions (ganglion, plantar fibroma, giant-cell tumour of tendon sheath, synovial chondromatosis, simple/aneurysmal bone cysts, osteochondroma, enchondroma) and the rare but dangerous malignancies (synovial sarcoma the commonest soft-tissue sarcoma here, with osteosarcoma the commonest bone malignancy) - and the cardinal principle that a foot mass is malignant until proven otherwise: image and biopsy properly before excision, because an unplanned 'whoops' excision worsens recurrence and survival.
Tumoral Calcinosis β Comprehensive guide to tumoral calcinosis - periarticular lobulated calcific masses, hyperphosphataemic (familial GALNT3/FGF23) vs secondary (renal) disease, differential from myositis ossificans, and surgical management.
Undifferentiated Pleomorphic Sarcoma (MFH) β High-grade pleomorphic sarcoma of soft tissue and bone, formerly malignant fibrous histiocytoma, now a diagnosis of exclusion defined by the absence of any specific line of differentiation
Unicameral (Simple) Bone Cyst β Comprehensive guide to unicameral (simple) bone cysts in children, including the fallen-fragment sign, pathological fracture management, aspiration and steroid injection, and surgical treatment options.
Vertebral Haemangioma β Benign vascular lesion of the vertebra, usually incidental, occasionally aggressive with epidural extension and spinal cord compression - imaging signs, classification, staging and management for FRACS exam
Amputation Surgical Principles β Comprehensive guide to amputation surgical principles - level selection, myodesis vs myoplasty, bone handling, nerve management, prosthetic considerations, phantom limb pain for orthopaedic exam
Anterior Approach to the Cervical Spine β Comprehensive exam-focused review of Anterior Approach to the Cervical Spine including clinical presentation, investigation, management, and key exam points
Antibiotic Pharmacology and Resistance Mechanisms (incl. Biofilm) β Fellowship-level guide to antibiotics for the orthopaedic surgeon: the major classes by mechanism (cell wall, protein synthesis, DNA/RNA, folate), bactericidal vs bacteriostatic and concentration- vs time-dependent killing, the mechanisms of bacterial resistance (enzymatic, target modification, efflux, reduced uptake), and the central role of BIOFILM tolerance in periprosthetic joint infection and osteomyelitis - with rifampicin's biofilm penetration.
Atypical Mycobacterial Infection β Comprehensive guide to Non-Tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) in orthopaedic practice including M. marinum fish tank granuloma, M. avium complex, rapidly growing mycobacteria, rice body tenosynovitis, diagnosis with AFB culture and PCR, and prolonged multi-drug treatment for fellowship exam preparation
Bone Transport Techniques β Comprehensive guide to bone transport - segmental bone defect management, distraction osteogenesis, docking site management for fellowship exam preparation
Deformity Analysis - CORA and MAD β Comprehensive guide to deformity analysis - mechanical axis deviation, center of rotation of angulation, osteotomy planning for fellowship exam preparation
Fungal Osteomyelitis β Comprehensive guide to fungal osteomyelitis - Candida, Aspergillus, endemic mycoses (Coccidioides, Blastomyces, Histoplasma), Cryptococcus, risk factors, diagnosis with tissue biopsy, 1,3-beta-D-glucan, and prolonged antifungal therapy for orthopaedic fellowship examinations
Gout and Crystal Arthropathy β Comprehensive guide to gout and crystal-induced arthropathies - monosodium urate crystals, acute attacks, chronic tophaceous gout, and orthopaedic management for fellowship exam preparation
Hypophosphatasia β Fellowship-level guide to hypophosphatasia (HPP): an inherited ALPL/TNSALP deficiency causing impaired mineralization with the paradoxical LOW serum alkaline phosphatase, the age-related clinical spectrum (perinatal to adult/odonto), premature loss of primary teeth and poorly-healing fractures, the critical pitfall that BISPHOSPHONATES are contraindicated, and enzyme replacement with asfotase alfa.
Ilizarov External Fixation β Comprehensive guide to Ilizarov external fixation - circular frame principles, wire tensioning, ring construction, and applications for fellowship exam preparation
Kocher-Langenbeck Approach to the Posterior Acetabulum β Comprehensive exam-focused review of Kocher-Langenbeck posterior approach to the acetabulum including surgical anatomy, technique, indications, and key exam points for FRCS and FRACS examinations
Limb Lengthening Principles β Comprehensive guide to limb lengthening - distraction osteogenesis, Ilizarov principles, indications, techniques, and complications for fellowship exam preparation
Lower Limb Amputation Levels β Comprehensive guide to lower limb amputation levels - toe, ray, transmetatarsal, Chopart, Lisfranc, Syme, transtibial, knee disarticulation, transfemoral, hip disarticulation. Energy expenditure, prosthetic outcomes, healing considerations for orthopaedic exam
Lyme Disease - Musculoskeletal Manifestations β Comprehensive guide to Lyme arthritis and musculoskeletal manifestations of Borrelia burgdorferi infection - erythema migrans, migratory arthralgia, Lyme arthritis, two-tier testing, and orthopaedic management for fellowship exam preparation
Melorheostosis β Comprehensive coverage of melorheostosis including pathophysiology, MAP2K1 mutations, dripping candle wax radiographic appearance, sclerotomal distribution, management strategies, and surgical complications for orthopaedic surgery examination preparation
Septic Arthritis β Comprehensive guide to septic arthritis in adults for FRCS exam preparation
Septic Bursitis (Olecranon / Prepatellar) β Fellowship-level guide to septic bursitis of the superficial olecranon and prepatellar bursae: the distinction from septic arthritis and from non-septic bursitis, the role of bursal aspiration (Staph aureus predominates), and the evidence that most cases resolve with antibiotics alone - with surgery reserved for abscess, foreign body or failed medical therapy.
Stainless Steel β Comprehensive guide to stainless steel biomaterials for FRCS examination
Surgical Approaches to the Ankle, Hindfoot and Foot β Advanced orthopaedic guide to surgical approaches around the ankle, hindfoot and foot, including anterior ankle, posterolateral ankle, medial ankle, sinus tarsi, extensile lateral calcaneus, dorsal midfoot and medial first-ray exposures.
Surgical Approaches to the Cervical and Thoracolumbar Spine β Advanced orthopaedic guide to cervical, thoracic, thoracolumbar and lumbar spine surgical approaches, including anterior cervical, posterior cervical, posterior thoracolumbar, anterior thoracic, lateral retroperitoneal, LLIF, OLIF and ALIF exposures.
Surgical Approaches to the Forearm, Wrist and Hand β Advanced orthopaedic guide to surgical approaches in the forearm, wrist and hand, including Henry, Thompson, carpal tunnel, scaphoid, flexor tendon and extensor tendon exposures.
Surgical Approaches to the Hip and Pelvis β An advanced orthopaedic guide to choosing and describing surgical approaches around the hip, acetabulum and pelvis, including relevant anatomy, imaging, exposure selection, operative steps and complications.
Surgical Approaches to the Knee β Advanced orthopaedic guide to surgical approaches around the knee, including medial parapatellar, subvastus, midvastus, lateral parapatellar, posteromedial and posterolateral exposures.
Surgical Approaches to the Shoulder and Elbow β An advanced orthopaedic guide to choosing and describing surgical approaches around the shoulder, proximal humerus and elbow, including anatomy, exposure selection, operative steps, complications and evidence.
Systemic Sclerosis / Scleroderma - Musculoskeletal β Fellowship-level guide to the musculoskeletal and hand manifestations of systemic sclerosis (scleroderma): sclerodactyly and flexion contractures, Raynaud's and digital ulcers, calcinosis, acro-osteolysis, tendon friction rubs, arthritis and erosive change - the autoantibody/subtype associations, and the cautious, mostly medical management with the pitfalls of operating on scleroderma skin.
Tantalum β Comprehensive guide to tantalum biomaterials for FRCS examination
Necrotizing Fasciitis β Comprehensive guide to necrotizing fasciitis - classification, LRINEC score, hard vs soft signs, surgical debridement, and antibiotic management for orthopaedic exam
Orthotic Prescription Principles β Comprehensive guide to orthotic prescription for FRACS exam preparation including nomenclature, biomechanics, AFO types, spinal orthoses, and clinical applications
Osteomalacia β Adult vitamin D deficiency bone disease causing defective mineralization, with orthopaedic manifestations including pathological fractures and bone pain
Osteoporosis β Comprehensive guide to osteoporosis including diagnosis, DEXA interpretation, FRAX risk assessment, and pharmacological management.
Pseudogout and CPPD Disease β Comprehensive guide to calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease - crystal identification, acute pseudogout attacks, chronic pyrophosphate arthropathy, and orthopaedic management for fellowship exam preparation
Pseudohypoparathyroidism (Albright Hereditary Osteodystrophy) β Fellowship-level guide to pseudohypoparathyroidism (PTH resistance) and Albright hereditary osteodystrophy: the GNAS/Gs-alpha defect and parent-of-origin imprinting (PHP1a vs pseudo-pseudohypoparathyroidism), the biochemical triad of hypocalcaemia + hyperphosphataemia + HIGH PTH, the AHO phenotype with short 4th/5th metacarpals (the metacarpal sign), and management with calcium and active vitamin D.
Pyomyositis (Tropical Pyomyositis) β Fellowship-level guide to pyomyositis - a primary bacterial infection of skeletal muscle with intramuscular abscess formation, classically tropical and paediatric but increasingly seen in temperate climates and adults, most often caused by Staphylococcus aureus (including MRSA) - covering the three clinical stages (invasive, suppurative, late/septic), the central role of MRI in diagnosis, and management by antibiotics plus drainage/debridement of the abscess, with awareness of progression to osteomyelitis and sepsis.
Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome) β Comprehensive guide to reactive arthritis - post-infectious seronegative spondyloarthropathy, urethritis-arthritis-conjunctivitis triad, HLA-B27 association, and orthopaedic management for fellowship exam preparation
Renal Osteodystrophy β Comprehensive guide to renal osteodystrophy in chronic kidney disease - pathophysiology, bone disease spectrum, rugger jersey spine, fracture risk, medical and surgical management for orthopaedic fellowship exams
Rickets β Childhood vitamin D deficiency causing defective endochondral ossification, with skeletal deformities and growth disturbance
Taylor Spatial Frame β Comprehensive guide to the Taylor Spatial Frame hexapod system for multiplanar deformity correction - Stewart platform kinematics, mounting parameters, software planning, and clinical applications for fellowship exam preparation
Transient Osteoporosis of the Hip / Regional Migratory Osteoporosis β Fellowship-level guide to transient osteoporosis of the hip (bone marrow oedema syndrome): a self-limiting, reversible cause of acute hip pain in middle-aged men and pregnant women, the diffuse femoral-head marrow oedema on MRI that distinguishes it from avascular necrosis, conservative management with protected weight-bearing, and the regional migratory variant.
Tuberculous Arthritis (Peripheral Joint TB) β Fellowship-level guide to tuberculous arthritis of peripheral joints (hip and knee most common): the indolent granulomatous monoarthritis, the Phemister radiographic triad, the diagnostic value of synovial biopsy/culture/PCR, the anti-tuberculous chemotherapy mainstay with adjunctive surgery, and the destructive sequelae (ankylosis) distinguishing it from pyogenic septic arthritis.
Venous Thromboembolism β Comprehensive FRACS exam guide to VTE - Virchow's triad, risk stratification (Caprini, NICE), prophylaxis protocols (mechanical vs chemical), LMWH vs DOACs vs aspirin, PE diagnosis and management, post-thrombotic syndrome, and clinical practice guidelines
Vitamin D Deficiency β Comprehensive guide to vitamin D deficiency - pathophysiology, skeletal manifestations, rickets, osteomalacia, diagnosis, replacement protocols for orthopaedic fellowship exams
X-Linked Hypophosphataemic / Oncogenic (Tumour-Induced) Osteomalacia β Fellowship-level guide to FGF23-mediated hypophosphataemic bone disease: X-linked hypophosphataemia (XLH, PHEX mutation) and tumour-induced (oncogenic) osteomalacia (TIO), the renal phosphate wasting with inappropriately low 1,25-vitamin D and NORMAL/high alkaline phosphatase, the biochemical and imaging workup (including localising FGF23-secreting tumours), and treatment with phosphate/active vitamin D, the anti-FGF23 antibody burosumab, and tumour resection for TIO.
Ankle & Foot Imaging: Systematic Interpretation β Systematic approach to ankle and foot imaging including plain radiography, CT, and MRI for trauma, arthritis, osteochondral lesions, and soft tissue pathology.
CT Imaging Principles β Comprehensive guide to CT imaging principles covering physics of acquisition, image reconstruction, Hounsfield units, radiation dose considerations, and systematic orthopaedic applications for fellowship exam preparation.
Fluoroscopy Principles β Comprehensive guide to fluoroscopy principles covering image generation, radiation exposure, dose reduction strategies, and intraoperative orthopaedic applications for fellowship exam preparation.
Imaging the Knee β Comprehensive guide to systematic knee imaging covering standard radiographic views, weight-bearing assessment, MRI for ligaments and menisci, and clinical applications for fellowship exam preparation.
Imaging the Pelvis and Hip β Comprehensive guide to systematic pelvis and hip imaging covering AP pelvis assessment, Shenton line, neck of femur fracture detection, AVN staging, and hip labral evaluation for fellowship exam preparation.
Imaging the Shoulder β Comprehensive guide to systematic shoulder imaging covering standard radiographic views, MRI sequences, rotator cuff assessment, instability imaging, and clinical decision-making for fellowship exam preparation.
Imaging the Spine β Comprehensive guide to systematic spine imaging covering radiographic alignment assessment, MRI for disc herniation and cord compression, fracture characterisation, and red flag detection for fellowship exam preparation.
MRI Bone Marrow Signal β Comprehensive guide to MRI bone marrow signal interpretation including normal marrow conversion, red vs yellow marrow, pathological signal patterns, and systematic differential diagnosis of marrow lesions for fellowship exam preparation.
MRI Imaging Principles β Comprehensive guide to MRI physics including magnetic field principles, signal generation, T1 and T2 relaxation, pulse sequences, and systematic orthopaedic applications for fellowship exam preparation.
MRI Sequences β Comprehensive guide to MRI pulse sequences used in orthopaedic practice including T1, T2, PD, STIR, GRE, and advanced techniques with clinical applications and protocol selection for fellowship exam preparation.
Plain Radiography Principles β Comprehensive guide to plain radiography principles including X-ray production physics, image formation, systematic interpretation approaches, radiation safety, and quality optimisation for orthopaedic fellowship exam preparation.
Radiation Safety β Comprehensive guide to radiation safety for orthopaedic surgeons covering ionising radiation biology, occupational exposure, dose limits, protection equipment, and ALARA implementation for fellowship exam preparation.
Radiological Signs in Bone Tumours β Comprehensive guide to radiological signs in bone tumours covering aggressive vs non-aggressive features, periosteal reactions, matrix mineralisation, tumour location, and staging imaging for fellowship exam preparation.
Radiological Signs in Paediatric Orthopaedics β Comprehensive guide to radiological signs in paediatric orthopaedics covering DDH assessment lines, SUFE Klein line, Perthes staging, Salter-Harris classification, and growth plate imaging for fellowship exam preparation.
Radiological Signs in Trauma β Comprehensive guide to classic radiological signs in musculoskeletal trauma covering named fractures, pathognomonic signs, and pattern recognition for fellowship exam preparation.
Trauma Imaging β Systematic approach to trauma imaging including modality selection, ATLS principles, polytrauma protocols, and imaging pitfalls in the acute setting.
Tumour Imaging: ABCDS Approach β Systematic approach to musculoskeletal tumour imaging using the ABCDS framework, including characteristic features of common benign and malignant lesions for fellowship exam preparation.
Arthrography Techniques β Comprehensive guide to arthrography techniques in orthopaedic imaging covering direct and indirect MR arthrography, CT arthrography, joint injection protocols, and clinical applications for fellowship exam preparation.
Arthroplasty Imaging: Assessment & Complications β Comprehensive guide to imaging assessment of joint arthroplasty including component position, alignment, and recognition of complications such as loosening, infection, wear, and instability.
Bone Scan Interpretation β Comprehensive guide to bone scan interpretation covering systematic reading approach, classic uptake patterns, anatomical correlation, and clinical applications in orthopaedic practice for fellowship exam preparation.
Classic Radiological Signs: Arthritis β Collection of classic radiological signs in arthritis and inflammatory conditions including OA, RA, gout, and seronegative arthropathies.
Contrast Agents and Safety β Comprehensive guide to contrast agents used in orthopaedic imaging covering iodinated CT contrast, gadolinium MRI contrast, allergic reactions, contrast-induced nephropathy, and safety protocols for fellowship exam preparation.
DEXA Bone Densitometry β Comprehensive guide to DXA bone densitometry covering physics, T-score and Z-score interpretation, WHO classification, FRAX risk assessment, and clinical decision-making for osteoporosis management in fellowship exam preparation.
Imaging in Pregnancy: Safety and Decision-Making β Evidence-based guide to imaging pregnant orthopaedic patients, covering radiation risk, modality choice, contrast use, and emergency imaging decisions.
Imaging Musculoskeletal Infection β Comprehensive guide to systematic imaging of musculoskeletal infection covering osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, PJI, and spinal infection with modality selection and MRI interpretation for fellowship exam preparation.
Imaging the Elbow β Comprehensive guide to systematic elbow imaging covering standard radiographic views, fat pad signs, MRI assessment, and clinical applications for fractures, ligament injury, and epicondylar pathology.
Metabolic Bone Disease: Imaging Features β Comprehensive guide to imaging features of metabolic bone diseases including osteoporosis, Paget's disease, hyperparathyroidism, and renal osteodystrophy for fellowship exam preparation.
MRI Cartilage Assessment β Comprehensive guide to MRI cartilage assessment including optimal sequences, grading systems, cartilage repair monitoring, and clinical decision-making for fellowship exam preparation.
MRI Contraindications and Implants β Comprehensive guide to MRI safety in patients with orthopaedic and non-orthopaedic implants, covering absolute and relative contraindications, MRI-conditional labelling, and artefact reduction strategies for fellowship exam preparation.
MRI Soft Tissue Interpretation β Guide to MRI interpretation of soft tissue structures including muscles, tendons, ligaments, and soft tissue masses with signal characteristics and pathological patterns.
Nuclear Medicine β Comprehensive guide to nuclear medicine imaging in orthopaedics covering bone scintigraphy, three-phase bone scan, PET-CT, labelled white cell scans, and clinical applications for infection, tumour, and metabolic bone disease evaluation.
Paediatric Imaging Principles β Comprehensive guide to paediatric imaging principles covering radiation safety, ALARA, modality selection for the growing skeleton, ossification centre assessment, and age-appropriate imaging protocols for fellowship exam preparation.
Ultrasound in Musculoskeletal Practice β Comprehensive guide to musculoskeletal ultrasound covering physics, transducer selection, systematic examination technique, common orthopaedic applications, and ultrasound-guided interventions for fellowship exam preparation.
Wrist & Hand Imaging: Systematic Interpretation β Systematic approach to wrist and hand imaging including plain radiography, CT, and MRI for trauma, carpal instability, and soft tissue pathology.
Labelled White Cell Scanning for Infection β Evidence-based guide to labelled white cell scintigraphy for osteomyelitis and prosthetic joint infection, including protocol, interpretation, and limitations.
MRI Metal Artefact Reduction (MARS) β Comprehensive guide to MRI metal artefact reduction techniques for imaging patients with orthopaedic implants including MARS sequences, protocol optimisation, and clinical applications.
PET-CT in Orthopaedic Oncology β Guide to PET-CT applications in orthopaedic oncology including staging, treatment response assessment, and detection of recurrence for fellowship exam preparation.
Weight-Bearing CT: Principles & Applications β Evidence-based guide to weight-bearing CT in orthopaedics, covering technique, indications, systematic interpretation, and current foot-and-ankle applications.
3D Printing from Imaging: Surgical Planning β Guide to 3D printing applications in orthopaedic surgery including patient-specific models, surgical guides, and custom implants derived from imaging data.
AI in Orthopaedic Radiology β Overview of artificial intelligence applications in orthopaedic radiology including fracture detection, arthroplasty planning, and image analysis for fellowship exam awareness.
CT Physics, Radiation Dose & Hounsfield Units β Fellowship-level guide to the physics of computed tomography for the orthopaedic surgeon - how a rotating X-ray tube and detectors reconstruct cross-sectional images from attenuation data, the Hounsfield (CT-number) scale referenced to water and air with windowing, the key acquisition parameters (kVp, mAs, pitch, slice thickness) and how they trade image quality against radiation dose, dose metrics (CTDIvol, DLP, effective dose) and the ALARA principle - with the practical message of low-dose protocols, harmonisation and protecting young patients/women of childbearing age.
SPECT-CT Applications β Comprehensive guide to SPECT-CT in orthopaedics covering technology principles, clinical applications for arthritis, prosthetic assessment, infection, and tumour evaluation for fellowship exam preparation.
MRI Neurography: Peripheral Nerve Imaging β Guide to MRI neurography for peripheral nerve imaging including techniques, normal anatomy, and pathological patterns for fellowship exam preparation.
Ultrasound Physics (Principles, Transducers, Doppler & Artefacts) β Fellowship-level guide to the physics of diagnostic (musculoskeletal) ultrasound - high-frequency sound generated by a piezoelectric transducer, the pulse-echo principle and the fundamental frequency-resolution-penetration trade-off, image modes (A/B/M-mode) and Doppler (colour, power, spectral), and the common artefacts (anisotropy, acoustic shadowing, posterior enhancement, reverberation, mirror image) - emphasising how recognising artefacts (especially anisotropy) avoids misdiagnosis and how to optimise the image, for the orthopaedic exam.